Western Foreign Fighters in the Conflict in Syria and Iraq: A Critical Reflection on the Role of Muslims’ Identity and Integration in the West by Seyedmehdi Hashemirahaghi B.A., Islamic Azad University of Tehran, 2008 A Thesis Submitted in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree of MASTER OF ARTS in the Department of Political Science Seyedmehdi Hashemirahaghi, 2016 University of Victoria All rights reserved. This thesis may not be reproduced in whole or in part, by photocopy or other means, without the permission of the author. ii Supervisory Committee Western Foreign Fighters in the Conflict in Syria and Iraq: A Critical Reflection on the Role of Muslims’ Identity and Integration in the West by Seyedmehdi Hashemirahaghi B.A., Islamic Azad University of Tehran, 2008 Supervisory Committee Dr. Scott Watson, Department of Political Science. Supervisor Dr. Andrew Wender, Department of Political Science. Committee Member iii Abstract Supervisory Committee Dr. Scott Watson, Department of Political Science. Supervisor Dr. Andrew Wender, Department of Political Science. Committee Member The current conflict in Syria and Iraq has attracted a large number of foreign fighters (FFs) from Western countries. The main question of this thesis is why these countries do not have a similar pattern for their proportions of FFs. This thesis explores this question in nine Western countries with varying proportions of FFs: Finland, Belgium, Denmark, France, Germany, England, Canada, Australia, and America. Through a case study of Islamic State’s online FF recruitment campaign, it will be shown that common religious identity is the main part of the group’s recruitment message. However, comparing the identified countries on factors related to Muslims’ identity and integration uncovers that common Muslim identity itself is not capable of answering the question; instead, it is Muslims’ integration into their surrounding societies that correlates with proportions of FFs from identified countries. iv Table of Contents Supervisory Committee ...................................................................................................... ii Abstract .............................................................................................................................. iii Table of Contents ............................................................................................................... iv List of Tables ..................................................................................................................... vi Acknowledgments............................................................................................................. vii Dedication ........................................................................................................................ viii Introduction ......................................................................................................................... 1 Background ..................................................................................................................... 1 Definition ........................................................................................................................ 3 Literature Review............................................................................................................ 4 Radicalization Literature ............................................................................................. 5 Foreign Fighter Mobilization Literature ................................................................... 12 Research Structure ........................................................................................................ 15 Case Selection ........................................................................................................... 15 The Islamic State....................................................................................................... 19 Methodology ................................................................................................................. 19 Limitations .................................................................................................................... 20 Conclusion .................................................................................................................... 21 Chapter 2: The Islamic State’s Recruitment Message ...................................................... 23 Introduction ................................................................................................................... 23 Relevant Literature........................................................................................................ 24 Background ................................................................................................................... 25 Internet: the Main Way for Communicating with the Audiences ................................. 26 The Key Means of Communication .............................................................................. 27 Videos ....................................................................................................................... 27 Written Materials ...................................................................................................... 28 Audio Messages ........................................................................................................ 28 Posters and Images .................................................................................................... 29 The Content of the Message ......................................................................................... 29 The Group’s Ideology ............................................................................................... 30 Terrorizing the Enemies ............................................................................................ 33 Responding to the Western Media ............................................................................ 37 Portraying the Group as a ‘State’ .............................................................................. 38 Hijra or Jihad............................................................................................................. 39 The Current Conflict: a Battle between “True Islam and Its Enemies” ........................ 41 Analysis: Characteristics of the Target Audiences ....................................................... 45 Chapter 3: Muslims’ Identity and Integration in Selected Countries ............................... 50 Introduction ................................................................................................................... 50 Identity .......................................................................................................................... 51 History of Muslims’ Presence in the West ............................................................... 52 Size of the Muslim Population .................................................................................. 53 Religious Division: Sunni or Shia? ........................................................................... 55 Nationality: Iraqis and Syrians .................................................................................. 57 v Which One Comes First? Religion or Citizenship? .................................................. 62 Ethnicity .................................................................................................................... 64 Age Structure ............................................................................................................ 66 Gender ....................................................................................................................... 67 Integration ..................................................................................................................... 69 Integration Models .................................................................................................... 71 Status of Islam and Its Relationship with the State................................................... 74 Religious Education .................................................................................................. 80 Education .................................................................................................................. 84 Housing ..................................................................................................................... 88 Employment .............................................................................................................. 90 Conclusion .................................................................................................................... 93 Chapter 4: Conclusion....................................................................................................... 96 Introduction ................................................................................................................... 96 Findings......................................................................................................................... 97 Theoretical Implication ............................................................................................... 100 Policy Implications ..................................................................................................... 101 Recommendation for Future Research ........................................................................ 101 Conclusion .................................................................................................................