LAND TENURE REFORM AND SOCIOECONOMIC STRUCTURES IN DӒBRӒ MARQOS (GOJJAM), ETHIOPIA: c.1901-1974 BY DANIEL DEJENE CHECKOL Submitted in accordance with the requirements for the Degree of Doctor of Philosophy In the Subject History At the University of South Africa (UNISA) SUPERVISOR: PROFESSOR EMERITUS TESEMA TA'A (Ph.D.) READERS: Professor Emeritus Shumet Sishagn Associate Professor Belete Bizuneh Associate Professor Fentahun Ayele Assistant Professor Teferi Mekonnen February 2020 i CONTENTS Pages Transliteration used in the Text and Footnotes, Abbreviations and Acronyms, Defining Key Property Terminologies and Other Related Issues, Abstract, Acknowledgements, Preface, and, Maps (1-3)……………………………………..……………………………….….i Chapter One Introduction Historical/Theoretical Overview……………………………………………………1 Chapter Two Customary Land Tenure and Land Distribution in Däbrä Marqos (Gojjam) .............................. 64 Major forms of Land Tenure (c.1901-1974) .............................................................................. 82 Land Distribution, Reclaim and Counter Claim ....................................................................... 115 Chapter Three Imperial Land Tax Reform and the Tenancy Issue .................................................................... 137 Changes in Taxation System .................................................................................................... 138 The Nature and Development of Tenancy: Landlessness and its Causes ................................ 168 Chapter Four The Reaction of the Local People to the Reform Measures ...................................................... 243 The Reaction of the Peasants 1901-1967 ................................................................................. 244 1967 Income Tax Proclamation and the Ensuing Development .............................................. 305 Chapter Five Conclusion ................................................................................................................................. 369 Bibliography ............................................................................................................................. 378 Transliteration used in the Text and Footnotes Below is a list of the speech sounds of Ethiopian letters that are usually translated into English as a recognized model of writing systems in the History Department of the Addis Ababa University (AAU)—also referring to the authoritative Amharic dictionary of Kédänä- Wäld Keflé (1948 Eth. Cal: 34) who adapted to the Geez alphabets—and which I used in my study. On the whole, it is prudent to indicate these speech sounds briefly on the six/five set of letters for their relevance and close-fitting features with the distinctive mark of the land system and the socioeconomic relations derived from it what prevailed in Däbrä Marqos (Gojjam) in the past, as presented below. Firstly, there will be • five glottal constrictions adapted to a moderate tone as /አ or ዐ=ä/ and /ሀ or ሐ or ኅ=hä/ • five palatal sounds as /ገ=gä/ /የ=yä/ /ከ=rä/ /ቀ=qä/ and /ሸ=shä • five tongue touching sounds as /ደ=dä/ /ጠ=ţä/ /ለ=lä/ /ነ=nä/ and /ተ=tä/ • six lips articulated sounds as: /በ=bä/ /ወ=wä/ /መ=mä/ /ፈ=fä/ /ጰ=ṗä/ and /ፐ=pä/ • eight tooth constrictions as /ዘ=zä/ /ዠ=žä/ /ሠ or ሰ=sä/ /ጨ=čä/ /ጸ or ፀ=š/ and /ረ=rä/ • three geminate speech sounds as /ጀ=jjä/ /ቸ=chä/ and /ኘ=ňňä/. Secondly, the expansions of this set of letters are represented by the following seven speech sounds: /ሀ=hä/ /ሁ=hu/ /ሂ=hi/ /ሃ=ha/ /ሄ=hé/ /ህ=he/ and /ሆ=ho/. Last, but not least, there will be a sound exception to this rule as /ኧ=uwa/. In conclusion, the above transliteration system have presented a reassuring sound to hear and produce a clear speech as cautiously used in this study. Giving allowance to these forms of sounds I employed to fulfill my objective, other forms of sounds existed in the Amharic- Geez alphabets of Ethiopia. The data obtained from lexical sources clearly show that Amharic-Geez alphabets' anticipation of additional speech sounds in connection to the transliteration system of Ethiopia produce by Geez-Amharic alphabets—which the remarkable dictionary works of Kédänä-Wäld (1948: 5-189) and Dästa Täklä-Wäld (1962: 8- 67) fixed—were proven. Thus, though the dictionaries promised fair system of transliteration in the aforementioned speech sounds what happened in this study is the selective use of them, as large section of the tenure system of Däbrä Marqos or generally Gojjam was arranged under those sound speeches. The following are general examples. ሸዋ =Shewa, ቋሪት =Qwarit, ንጉሥ =negus, አሞሌ ጨው =amolé čäw, አዉራጃ =awrajja, አዛዥ =azaži, ከበደ ተሰማ =Käbbäda Täsämma, ደብረ ማርቆስ =Däbrä Marqos, ደጃዝማች =däjjazmach, ጎጃም =Gojjam, ጠቅላይ ግዛት =ţäqlay-gezat, and, ፀሐዩ እንቁስላሴ =Šähäyu Enqu-Sellasé. ii Abbreviations and Acronyms Abbreviations and Acronyms used in the text and footnotes of the thesis are as follow. AAU -Addis Ababa University AAUP -Addis Ababa University Press Agäw -contraction of Agew Meder Agew Meder -expansion of Agew Birr -contraction of ţägära birr, also referring to the existing Ethiopian currency Däjjach -contraction of Däjjazmach EGAZHCA -East Gojjam Administrative Zone High- Court Archive Emperor, the -refers to Emperor Haile Sellassie I Eth. Cal. -Ethiopian Calendar Haylu I, Ras -also Haylu the great (formerly Abéto Häylä-Iyäsus) as 'lord' of Gojjam in the last quarter of the eighteenth century Haylu II, Ras -['lord'] governor of Gojjam from 1901- 1932, formerly Däjjazmach Seyum Täklä-Häymanot Haylu III, Ras -Ras Haylu Bäläw, governor of Gojjam from 1942-1946 and 1950-1957 IES -Institute of Ethiopian Studies of the AAU Maccaa -the same as the district of Méča Méča -the same as Maccaa mentioned above MLRA -Ministry of Land Reform and Administration MoF -Ministry of Finance MoI -Ministry of Interior MS -Manuscript (pl. MSS mentioned below) MSS -Manuscripts (sing. MS mentioned MSNLAA above) -Manuscript Collection of the National Library and Archive Agency Ţäqlay-Gezat, the -also a phrase used to express the governorate general or province of Gojjam during the post-liberation period (1941-1974) UNISA -University of South Africa WMA -Wäldä-Mäsqäl Archive Yä or yä- -a term used to express possession iii Defining Key Property Terminologies and Other Related Issues A Abba -honorary title for a priest, elder and social notable Abéto -analogous to 'lord' (Dästa 1962 [Eth. Cal.]: 78) Aläqa -'subject of a legal ecclesiastical appointee notable (Dästa 1962 [Eth. Cal.]: 105) Agär Azmach, Yä- -'country war leader' Amolé [Čäw] -used for payment of tribute, commonly in the form of bar, termed as 'salt bar' Asrat or Tithe -a fixed tax with a tenth of the land production that started to be paid in cash since 1892/93 Ato -a title, comparable with Mr., still used in front of the name of a man when speaking to him politely, also to write to a male sex in an official position Ašé -a royal title comparable with emperor Aqňňi -'pioneer' Aqňňi-Abbat or Wanna-Abbat -pioneer settler or founding father Awrajja -'sub-province' Azaži -title of high-ranking official, literally means commander in charge of the emperor or empress B Balabbat -holders of land through ancestral descent Balä Rist -'rist-holder' Banda -Ethiopians who collaborated with the enemy forces and fought against their people Behérawi Ţor-Särawit -Territorial Army, formerly Näč Läbash Ţor-Särawit (White-Wearing Army) Bétä Mängest Gult Märét -'gult house of government' Balambaras -title given to a civilian leader Bäjärond -title bestowed to state treasurer Bälg -the season between the months of March and May iv Bitäwädäd -entrusted to put the authority of kings and/or queens, as principal courtier under the latter's dominion. Birr -'silver coin' as of the historic Maria Theresa Thaler/Taläri or Dollar, Yä- [Aše] Minilek Birr and the Italian shelleng, all are silver coins, as ţägära- birr. Now the term Birr is used to explain the Ethiopian national currency, both for its metal and paper shape Birr, [Ţägära] -'silver coin', also refers to the existing national currency C Čäw -salt: used for payment of tribute, commonly in the form of bar, as 'amolé ĉäw': salt bar. Central Gojjam -one of the three provinces of Gojjam in nineteenth century and before, virtually the later Däbrä Markos Awrajja Česäňňa or Ţisäňňa -a tenant with scarce or land, as subject farmer or as sharecropper Česäňňanät or Ţisäňňanät -'sharecropping arrangement', also referring to the condition of being česäňňa or Ţisäňňa Čeqa Mägaräfiya, -a technical term that signifies the size of land and its tributary payments Čeqa-Shum -village headman who levied land tax on yearly basis Čera Geber -'cattle head tax' Church Tenure -'sämon tenure' D Däbrä Marqos -contemporary Debre Markos Awrajja, formerly the province of Central Gojjam or the town of Mänqorär (Däbrä Marqos), also referring to Saint Mark Church Debre Markos -the same as Däbrä Marqos (see above) Däber (pl. Däbers) -'great church' Däber Gult Märét -special possession of the däbers of Gojjam Däbtära -the most learned ecclesiastical elite or clergy Däbtära Märét -land given to church administrator, as debtrena-märét, yä- v Däbtära Wärq, Yä- -'ecclesiastic gold', a tribute or tax paid to däbers of Gojjam from their special gult possession called däber-gult-märét Däga -highland area with cold temperature Däjjach -comparable with däjjazmach, as defined below Däjjazmach -literally means commander of the gate and title of high-ranking state official, also comparable with däjjach Däsdäs Alash Geber, Yä- -'winner trial tax' Debtrena