ETHNIC MARKETS IN THE AMERICAN RETAIL LANDSCAPE: AFRICAN MARKETS IN COLUMBUS, CLEVELAND, CINCINNATI, AND AKRON, OHIO A dissertation submitted to Kent State University in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy by Hyiamang Safo Odoom December 2012 Dissertation written by Hyiamang Safo Odoom B.A., University of Ghana,Ghana, 1980 M.S., University of Cape Coast, Ghana, 1991 Ph.D., Kent State University, 2012 Approved by ___________________________, Chair, Doctoral Dissertation Committee David H. Kaplan, Ph.D. ___________________________, Members, Doctoral Dissertation Committee Milton E. Harvey, Ph.D. ___________________________, Sarah Smiley, Ph.D. ___________________________, Steven Brown, Ph.D. ___________________________, Polycarp Ikuenobe, Ph.D. Accepted by ___________________________, Chair, Department of Geography Mandy Munro-Stasiuk, Ph.D. ___________________________, Dean, College of Arts and Sciences Timothy S. Moerland, Ph.D. ii TABLE OF CONTENTS LIST OF FIGURES ......................................................................................................... viii LIST OF TABLES ...............................................................................................................x ACKNOWLEDGMENTS ................................................................................................ xi CHAPTER ONE: THE AFRICAN MARKET/GROCERY STORE .................................1 Introduction…………………….……………………………….………………….1 What is a Market/African Market? ..........................................................................1 Research Goals.........................................................................................................3 Significance of the Research ....................................................................................4 Organization of the Dissertation ..............................................................................4 CHAPTER TWO: LITERATURE REVIEW ......................................................................7 Introduction ..............................................................................................................7 Review of Theories ..................................................................................................7 The Blocked Mobility or Disadvantage Theory/Structural Model ..........................8 Cultural Thesis .......................................................................................................10 The Middleman Minority Theory ..........................................................................13 The Enclave Economy ...........................................................................................14 The Interactive Model of Ethnic Business Development ......................................16 Opportunity Structures.....................................................................................17 Group Characteristics .....................................................................................19 Ethnic Strategies ..............................................................................................22 Summary ................................................................................................................23 CHAPTER THREE: SUB-SAHARAN AFRICAN MIGRATION ..................................25 Introduction ............................................................................................................25 Migration as a Social Process ................................................................................25 Configuring Sub-Saharan African Immigration to the United States ....................26 iii Worsening Economic Conditions in Sub-Saharan African Countries ...................27 Structural Adjustment Programs ............................................................................27 Instability of the Sub-Saharan African Political Landscape ..................................28 Xenophobic Attitude ..............................................................................................32 Unequal Environmental Resources Distribution ...................................................33 Historical Factors ...................................................................................................34 Cultural Factors ......................................................................................................35 Economic Conditions and Living Standards..........................................................37 The United States Immigration Laws ....................................................................37 Internationalizing Sub-Saharan African Academic and Professional Skills ..........42 Conclusion .............................................................................................................42 CHAPTER FOUR: THE AFRICAN GROCERY STORE ...............................................44 Introduction ............................................................................................................44 The African Grocery Store Creation: A Scenario ..................................................44 African Grocery Stores – Processes of their Creation ...........................................46 Information Sources .........................................................................................46 Startup Capital .................................................................................................47 Workforce Support ...........................................................................................48 Product Types and Sources of Supply ..............................................................49 Reaching Consumers .............................................................................................52 Competition at the African Grocery Store Landscape ...........................................54 The African Grocery Store as a Sense of Place .....................................................55 The Morphology of African Grocery Stores ..........................................................58 Internal Structure of African Grocery Stores ..................................................58 Shelves..............................................................................................................59 Coolers and Refrigerators ...............................................................................61 Other Equipment at an African Grocery Store ......................................................62 Conclusion .............................................................................................................65 iv CHAPTER FIVE: THE STUDY AREAS .........................................................................66 Introduction ............................................................................................................66 Reasons for Choosing the Study Areas ..................................................................66 The Development of African Grocery Stores ........................................................68 Meso-scale Analysis of the Five Large Cities in Ohio ..........................................69 The Cities at Micro-scale .......................................................................................74 The City of Columbus ............................................................................................74 The City of Cleveland ............................................................................................82 The City of Cincinnati ...........................................................................................89 The City of Akron ..................................................................................................95 Conclusion .............................................................................................................99 CHAPTER SIX: THE RESEARCH DESIGN AND PROCEDURES ............................100 Introduction ..........................................................................................................101 Q Methodology ....................................................................................................101 Images of Ethnic Stores of Sub-Saharan African Immigrants .............................103 Operators Selection: The Structure of the P–Set .................................................106 The Q Sample ......................................................................................................107 Research Questions ..............................................................................................112 The Sampling Frame ............................................................................................112 Questionnaires and Pretesting ..............................................................................114 Pilot Testing of Questionnaires .....................................................................115 Instructions for Sorting Q Statements ............................................................116 Consent to Administer Questionnaires ..........................................................118 Administration of Q Sorts ..............................................................................118 Mechanics of Q Sorting .................................................................................119 Collection of the Q Sorts, Problems, and Research Involvement Rates ........121 Conclusion ...........................................................................................................123