Advances in Game-Based Learning Oostendorp · van Wouters Advances in Game-Based Learning Pieter Wouters · Herre van Oostendorp Editors Instructional Techniques to Facilitate Learning and Motivation of Serious Games The book introduces techniques to improve the effectiveness of serious games in relation to cognition and motivation. These techniques include ways to improve motivation, collaboration, reflection, and the integration of gameplay into various contexts. The contributing authors expand upon this broad range of techniques, show recent empirical research on each of these techniques that discuss their promise and Eds. Pieter Wouters effectiveness, then present general implications or guidelines that the techniques bring forth. They then suggest how serious games can be improved by implementing the Herre van Oostendorp Editors respective technique into a particular game. Instructional 1 Learning and Motivation of Serious Games and Motivation Learning Facilitate to Techniques Instructional Techniques to Facilitate Learning and Motivation of Serious Games Education ISBN 978-3-319-39296-7 9 783319 392967 Advances in Game-Based Learning Series editor: Dirk Ifenthaler Scott JosephWarren Deniz Eseryel More information about this series at http://www.springer.com/series/13094 Pieter Wouters • Herre van Oostendorp Editors Instructional Techniques to Facilitate Learning and Motivation of Serious Games Editors Pieter Wouters Herre van Oostendorp Utrecht University Utrecht University Utretcht , The Netherlands Utrecht , The Netherlands Advances in Game-Based Learning ISBN 978-3-319-39296-7 ISBN 978-3-319-39298-1 (eBook) DOI 10.1007/978-3-319-39298-1 Library of Congress Control Number: 2016950587 © Springer International Publishing Switzerland 2017 This work is subject to copyright. All rights are reserved by the Publisher, whether the whole or part of the material is concerned, specifi cally the rights of translation, reprinting, reuse of illustrations, recitation, broadcasting, reproduction on microfi lms or in any other physical way, and transmission or information storage and retrieval, electronic adaptation, computer software, or by similar or dissimilar methodology now known or hereafter developed. The use of general descriptive names, registered names, trademarks, service marks, etc. in this publication does not imply, even in the absence of a specifi c statement, that such names are exempt from the relevant protective laws and regulations and therefore free for general use. The publisher, the authors and the editors are safe to assume that the advice and information in this book are believed to be true and accurate at the date of publication. Neither the publisher nor the authors or the editors give a warranty, express or implied, with respect to the material contained herein or for any errors or omissions that may have been made. Printed on acid-free paper This Springer imprint is published by Springer Nature The registered company is Springer International Publishing AG Switzerland Contents 1 Overview of Instructional Techniques to Facilitate Learning and Motivation of Serious Games ......................................... 1 Pieter Wouters and Herre van Oostendorp 2 Towards a Game-Based Learning Instructional Design Model Focusing on Integration .............................................................. 17 Sylke Vandercruysse and Jan Elen 3 Two Systems, Two Stances: A Novel Theoretical Framework for Model-Based Learning in Digital Games................... 37 Mario M. Martinez-Garza and Douglas B. Clark 4 Assessment and Adaptation in Games .................................................. 59 Valerie Shute , Fengfeng Ke , and Lubin Wang 5 Fidelity and Multimodal Interactions ................................................... 79 Bill Kapralos , Fuad Moussa , Karen Collins , and Adam Dubrowski 6 Narration-Based Techniques to Facilitate Game-Based Learning ................................................................................................... 103 Herre van Oostendorp and Pieter Wouters 7 Designing Effective Feedback Messages in Serious Games and Simulations: A Research Review ....................................... 119 Cheryl I. Johnson , Shannon K. T. Bailey , and Wendi L. Van Buskirk 8 Self-Explanations in Game-Based Learning: From Tacit to Transferable Knowledge .................................................................... 141 Judith ter Vrugte and Ton de Jong 9 Competition and Collaboration for Game- Based Learning: A Case Study ........................................................................................... 161 Eric Sanchez v vi Contents 10 Modeling and Worked Examples in Game- Based Learning ............... 185 Pieter Wouters 1 1 R e fl ections on Serious Games ................................................................ 199 Arthur C. Graesser Index ................................................................................................................. 213 Chapter 1 Overview of Instructional Techniques to Facilitate Learning and Motivation of Serious Games Pieter Wouters and Herre van Oostendorp Abstract Computer games that are used for the purpose of learning, training, and instruction are often referred to as serious games. The last decade shows a huge increase in empirical studies investigating the learning effectiveness and motiva- tional appeal of serious games. Recent meta-analyses show that serious games are effective compared to traditional instruction but that the effectiveness can be improved. This chapter explores which specifi c instructional techniques can further improve learning and increase motivation. We defi ne instructional techniques as any adaptation of a feature of the game itself or in the context of the game that infl uences the selection of relevant information, the organization, and integration of that infor- mation and/or the intrinsic motivation of the player. The starting point is a meta- analysis conducted in 2013 that is updated and extended. The meta-analysis has a value-added approach and shows which game features can improve learning and/or increase motivation. The interpretation of the results will yield nine proven effective or promising instructional techniques in terms of learning and/or motivation. This set of nine techniques—content integration, context integration, assessment and adaptivity, level of realism, narration-based techniques, feedback, self-explanation and refl ection, collaboration and competition, and modeling—form the basis of this volume, which is closed by a refl ection chapter. Keywords Instructional techniques • Serious games • Learning • Motivation • Meta-analysis 1.1 Introduction In the last decade, we have seen a boost in empirical studies regarding the effective- ness of computer games in learning, training, and instruction. In the literature, such learning environments are often referred to as serious games or game-based P. Wouters • H. van Oostendorp (*) Utrecht University , Utrecht 3512 JE , The Netherlands e-mail: [email protected] © Springer International Publishing Switzerland 2017 1 P. Wouters, H. van Oostendorp (eds.), Instructional Techniques to Facilitate Learning and Motivation of Serious Games, Advances in Game-Based Learning, DOI 10.1007/978-3-319-39298-1_1 2 P. Wouters and H. van Oostendorp learning. With the increasing number of studies also several quantitative and qualitative meta-reviews have been published that have shown the potential of seri- ous games (Boyle et al., 2016 ; Clark, Tanner-Smith, & Killingsworth, 2015 ; Ke, 2009 ; O’Neil, Wainess, & Baker, 2005 ; Sitzmann, 2011 ; Vogel et al., 2006 ; Wouters, van der Spek, & van Oostendorp, 2009 ; Wouters, Van Nimwegen, Van Oostendorp, & Van Der Spek, 2013 ; Wouters & Van Oostendorp, 2013 ). In addition, these reviews have emphasized the conditions under which serious games are effective. Typically, empirical studies in game research have a particular approach. Mayer ( 2011 , 2016 ) has divided game research into three categories: a value-added approach with the underlying question how specifi c game features foster learning and motivation; a cognitive consequences approach, which investigates what people learn from serious games and a media comparison approach, which investigates whether people learn better from serious games than from conventional media. Recent meta-analyses with a media comparison approach reveal that serious games are more effective than traditional learning methods , but that the effect size is only low to moderate. For instance, Wouters et al. ( 2013 ) found an effect size of d = .29 when comparing serious games with traditional instruction which is in line with the range of effect sizes ( d = .28 to d = .37) that Sitzmann ( 2011 ) found when comparing simulation games with non-simulation game groups. Reviews from a value-added approach such as our own (Wouters & Van Oostendorp, 2013 ) show that the effec- tiveness of serious games can be improved when specifi c features are implemented (e.g., we found a strong effect for providing educational feedback) while other fea- tures seem to have no or limited effect (e.g., providing advice does not seem to improve the learning potential of a serious game). In other words, it is useful to explore whether the effectiveness of serious games can be increased by implement- ing or further elaborating specifi c features of the game. Theoretically, games may infl uence learning in two ways, directly by changing the cognitive processes and indirectly by affecting the motivation. Figure