GENDER, ETHNICITY, INFRASTRUCTURE, AND THE USE OF FINANCIAL INSTITUTIONS IN KALIMANTAN BARAT, INDONESIA _______________________________________ A Dissertation presented to the Faculty of the Graduate School at the University of Missouri-Columbia _______________________________________________________ In Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree Doctor of Philosophy _____________________________________________________ by CHRISTINA POMIANEK DAMES Dr. Mary Shenk, Dissertation Supervisor JULY 2012 © Copyright by Christina Dames 2012 All Rights Reserved The undersigned, appointed by the dean of the Graduate School have examined the dissertation entitled GENDER, ETHNICITY, INFRASTRUCTURE, AND THE USE OF FINANCIAL INSTITUTIONS IN KALIMANTAN BARAT, INDONESIA presented by Christina Pomianek Dames, a candidate for the degree of doctor of philosophy, and hereby certify that, in their opinion, it is worthy of acceptance. Assistant Professor Mary Shenk Associate Professor Craig Palmer Associate Professor Todd VanPool Professor James S. Rikoon This dissertation is dedicated to the memory of my parents. ACKNOWLEGEMENTS Now at the conclusion of my graduate studies in anthropology, I look back and recognize the many people who have been instrumental in helping me to discover, pursue, and achieve my goals. In thanks. First and foremost, to my dissertation advisor and mentor, Dr. Mary Shenk, for her guidance and for the many hours she has spent reading and commenting on drafts of this dissertation. To my late mentor Dr. Reed Wadley, who is solely responsible for opening my eyes to Indonesia and in Kalimantan Barat. Although we only worked together for a few short years, meeting Dr. Wadley completely changed the course of my life. I am deeply saddened that we are not able to share our ―stories from the field,‖ but I am forever grateful that our paths crossed at all. To Dr. Craig Palmer, who has served on each and every one of my examining committees during the course of my graduate education; perhaps no other person knows more about my development as an anthropologist. To my committee member, Dr. Todd VanPool, who always asks the most insightful and interesting questions. ii To Dr. Sandy Rikoon, who has offered valuable suggestions and comments, particularly with regard to the development literature that became so important to this dissertation. To Dr. Lee Lyman, who served as chair of the Department of Anthropology for the duration of my graduate studies. Dr. Lyman has been incredibly reliable, especially in the uncertain times surrounding Dr. Wadley‘s illness and death, and has been a great support to me. To Dean Michael O‘Brien, the first faculty member of the Department of Anthropology I met in 2004. He was enthusiastic and encouraging as I started out in my graduate studies. To Dean George Justice, whose interest my research and in my progress in the doctoral program has served as motivation. To Dr. Amber Johnson of Truman State University; without whose encouragement I might never have dreamed of becoming an anthropologist. To the generous people of Kalimantan Barat who made this research possible—especially Pak Heri Valentinus and the Riak Bumi staff who were my family so far from home, Pak Nico Bohot, who was incredibly enthusiastic about this work, Pak Elias of the Institute of Dayakolgy, and Pak Sugiman of Kobus, who were reliable sources of advice and support. To Pak Rochman Achwan of Universitas Indonesia, for his help in planning this research. iii To my husband, Martin Dames Jr., who agreed to marry me in the midst of dissertation writing, which was evidence of his bravery and commitment. To my brother, Matthew Pomianek and sister-in-law, Elisa Pomianek, who have encouraged me throughout my graduate studies. To my dear parents, Mary Ann and Robert Pomianek, who sadly did not live to see my completion of this dissertation and doctoral program but who have been with me every step of the way nonetheless. And . To the Fulbright Program and to Boren Awards, for funding this dissertation research. iv TABLE OF CONTENTS ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ................................................................................................ii LIST OF FIGURES AND ILLUSTRATIONS................................................................ viii LIST OF TABLES ............................................................................................................. ix ACADEMIC ABSTRACT ............................................................................................... xii CHAPTER ONE ................................................................................................................. 1 INTRODUCTION Objectives of the Study................................................................................................ 1 Gender ......................................................................................................................... 3 Ethnicity and Religion ................................................................................................. 6 Geography and Infrastructure .................................................................................... 10 The Microfinance Movement .................................................................................... 11 Formal Microfinancial Institutions in Indonesia ....................................................... 15 Informal Credit Institutions ....................................................................................... 24 CHAPTER TWO .............................................................................................................. 33 OVERVIEW OF RESEARCH LOCATIONS Kalimantan Barat, Indonesia ..................................................................................... 33 CHAPTER THREE .......................................................................................................... 83 METHODS Participant Selection, Interviews, and Focus Groups ................................................ 83 Selection of Research Locations ................................................................................ 85 Benefits and Challenges of Multisited Research ....................................................... 91 Variables and Tests .................................................................................................... 95 CHAPTER FOUR ............................................................................................................. 97 GENDER AND USE OF FINANCIAL INSTITUTIONS Introduction ............................................................................................................... 97 Women and Microfinance ....................................................................................... 100 Men and Microfinance ............................................................................................. 109 Politics, Education, and Gender in Indonesia .......................................................... 113 Gender and Religion in Indonesia ........................................................................... 119 Gender in Kalimatan Barat ...................................................................................... 124 Research Questions and Predictions ........................................................................ 130 Analyses and Results ............................................................................................... 132 Discussion and Conclusion ...................................................................................... 137 v CHAPTER FIVE ............................................................................................................ 147 ETHNICITY AND USE OF FINANCIAL INSTITUTIONS Introduction ............................................................................................................. 147 The Ethnic Context in Kalimantan .......................................................................... 149 Ethnicity, Development, and Financial Participation .............................................. 157 Research Questions and Predictions ........................................................................ 159 Analyses and Results ............................................................................................... 161 Discussion and Conclusions .................................................................................... 166 CHAPTER SIX ............................................................................................................... 177 INFRASTRUCTURE AND USE OF FINANCIAL INSTITUTIONS The Anthropology of Infrastructure and Mobility ................................................... 177 The Perspective from Development and Poverty-Alleviation ................................. 181 Roads in Indonesia................................................................................................... 185 Roads in Kalimantan Barat ...................................................................................... 190 Roads and Access to Financial Services.................................................................. 192 Research Questions and Predictions ........................................................................ 193 Analyses and Results ............................................................................................... 195 Discussion and Conclusions .................................................................................... 210 CHAPTER SEVEN .......................................................................................................