Running head: TURKEY IN EGYPTIAN MEDIA The Image of Turkey in Egyptian Media: Content and Discourse Analysis of the Coverage in three Egyptian Newspapers Mohamed Moustafa Gameel Ebada A Thesis Submitted to Journalism and Mass Communication Department Under the Supervision of Dr. Naila Hamdy Fall 2016 TURKEY IN EGYPTIAN MEDIA 2 Table of Contents Acknowledgment ................................................................................................................... 4 Abstract ................................................................................................................................. 6 Introduction .......................................................................................................................... 7 Historical Survey of Media in Egypt .................................................................................... 11 Nasser’s State and Media .............................................................................................................. 12 Sadat’s Liberation Policies ............................................................................................................ 13 Mubarak and Media Development ............................................................................................... 14 The Early Days of the 2011 Egyptian Revolution/Uprising .......................................................... 16 Egyptian Media After 2011 ........................................................................................................... 17 June 30 and Afterward .................................................................................................................. 17 The Dynamics of Turkey: Historical Survey ........................................................................ 21 Succession of a Died Empire ......................................................................................................... 21 New Modern State and New Society ............................................................................................. 21 Turkey: A Powerful International Actor ...................................................................................... 23 Theoretical approach ........................................................................................................... 28 Anderson’s Imagined Communities .............................................................................................. 28 Framing Theory ............................................................................................................................ 31 Media as Ideological Disseminators: A Review of Literature .............................................. 39 Egyptian–Turkish Relations ......................................................................................................... 39 Turkey as a Political Model .......................................................................................................... 44 Text’s Encoding and Decoding ..................................................................................................... 47 Culture, Ideology, Nationalism, and Media .................................................................................. 48 Framing Literature .............................................................................................................. 52 National Ideology in Quantitative Research ................................................................................. 52 Framing Politics ............................................................................................................................ 53 Framing and Society ..................................................................................................................... 58 Egyptian Newspapers and Media Framing ................................................................................... 60 Conclusion ..................................................................................................................................... 61 Research Questions and Hypotheses .................................................................................... 63 Methodology ........................................................................................................................ 63 Deployed Methods ......................................................................................................................... 64 Sampling ....................................................................................................................................... 67 Measurements ............................................................................................................................... 69 Inter-coder Reliability ................................................................................................................... 73 Analysis and Discussion ....................................................................................................... 74 Getting a Sense of Data ................................................................................................................. 74 Frame Analysis ............................................................................................................................. 77 Trend Analysis .............................................................................................................................. 82 Turkey from Model Nation to Cautionary Tale: Qualitative Analysis ................................ 87 Turkey as a Model: From Early 2012 to Early 2013 ..................................................................... 88 TURKEY IN EGYPTIAN MEDIA 3 Turkey is Not Similar to Egypt: From Early 2013 to Mid-2013 ................................................... 92 Turkey is the Enemy of our Unified Nation: From Mid-2013 to Late 2014 .................................. 95 In Conclusion ................................................................................................................................ 98 Conclusion and Recommendations ...................................................................................... 99 The Turkish Model ..................................................................................................................... 100 Media Professionalism ................................................................................................................ 100 Media Literacy ............................................................................................................................ 101 Recommendations ....................................................................................................................... 102 Bibliography ...................................................................................................................... 103 Appendix A ........................................................................................................................ 113 Appendix B ........................................................................................................................ 117 Appendix C ........................................................................................................................ 118 Appendix D ........................................................................................................................ 119 Appendix E ........................................................................................................................ 120 Appendix F ......................................................................................................................... 121 Appendix G ........................................................................................................................ 122 Appendix H ........................................................................................................................ 123 Appendix I.......................................................................................................................... 124 TURKEY IN EGYPTIAN MEDIA 4 Acknowledgment To my Mother, Father, and little sister, thank you. No words can explain how much I love you. To my Dr. Naila, I believe you trusted me more than myself. I will never forget that. To Youmna and Sarah, thank you for being so generous to do the coding for this study. TURKEY IN EGYPTIAN MEDIA 5 “Every empire tells itself and the world that it is unlike all other empires” Edward Siad (1935-2003) TURKEY IN EGYPTIAN MEDIA 6 Abstract This study investigates the image of Turkey in Egyptian newspapers by conducting a content and discourse analysis of three Egyptian newspapers, Al-Ahram, El-Shorouk, and Almasry Alyoum, from January 2012 to December 2014. Based on previous literature, this study applied two theoretical frameworks: 1) Benedict Anderson’s hypnosis of imagined communities and 2) media framing theory. To apply media framing, the Semetko and Valkenburg (2000) framing scale was employed. Following that, a rhetorical discourse was used to investigate Anderson’s thesis. The study’s finding matched Semetko and Valkenburg’s framing scale. Both indicated that the attribution of responsibility is the most frequent frame in news. Finally, the discourse analysis resulted that newspapers could be deployed as an instrument to disseminate shared thoughts and ideologies among diverse citizens. TURKEY IN EGYPTIAN MEDIA 7 Introduction Benedict Anderson innovatively furnished the notion of imagined communities in his book,