FISHERS AND FISH TRADERS OF LAKE VICTORIA: COLONIAL POLICY AND THE DEVELOPMENT OF FISH PRODUCTION IN KENYA, 1880-1978. by PAUL ABIERO OPONDO Student No. 34872086 submitted in accordance with the requirement for the degree of DOCTOR OF LITERATURE AND PHILOSOPHY in the subject HISTORY at the UNIVERSITY OF SOUTH AFRICA PROMOTER: DR. MUCHAPARARA MUSEMWA, University of the Witwatersrand CO-PROMOTER: PROF. LANCE SITTERT, University of Cape Town 10 February 2011 DECLARATION I declare that ‘Fishers and Fish Traders of Lake Victoria: Colonial Policy and the Development of Fish Production in Kenya, 1895-1978 ’ is my original unaided work and that all the sources that I have used or quoted have been indicated and acknowledged by means of complete references. I further declare that the thesis has never been submitted before for examination for any degree in any other university. Paul Abiero Opondo __________________ _ . 2 DEDICATION This work is dedicated to several fishers and fish traders who continue to wallow in poverty and hopelessness despite their daily fishing voyages, whose sweat and profits end up in the pockets of big fish dealers and agents from Nairobi. It is equally dedicated to my late father, Michael, and mother, Consolata, who guided me with their wisdom early enough. In addition I dedicate it to my loving wife, Millicent who withstood the loneliness caused by my occasional absence from home, and to our children, Nancy, Michael, Bivinz and Barrack for whom all this is done. 3 ABSTRACT The developemnt of fisheries in Lake Victoria is faced with a myriad challenges including overfishing, environmental destruction, disappearance of certain indigenous species and pollution. All these problems can be located within the social, economic and political systems that exists today and in the past. This thesis, ‘Fishers and Fish Traders of Lake Victoria : Colonial Policy and the Development of Fish Production in Kenya, 1880-1978’, argues that the Luo fishers had their own indigenous techniques of fishing, modes of preservation and systems of management that ensured sustainable utilisation of fisheries. The thesis examines the role of the Luo fishers in the sustainable usage of the Lake Victoria fisheries. The British colonial settlers came up with new policies of plantation and commercial farming, taxation and forced labour, all of which encouraged the Luo fishers to partially break with their pre-colonial systems and create new ways of responding to the demands of the colonial state. The study argues that the coming of colonialism and its attendant capitalism introduced new fishing gear as well as new species, such as mbuta, that were inimical to the sustainable utilisation of the Lake Victoria fisheries. The colonial regime also introduced new practices of fisheries management such as scouts, licensing, closed seasons and the numbering of boats, practices geared towards ensuring the commercial production and development of the fisheries. This commercialisation led to cut-throat competition between Asian, European and African fish traders. The coming of independence in 1963 brought some changes, such as the provision of credit facilities, new technology, and attempts by the new African government to more effectively control and manage the fisheries. However, not much changed in terms of policy objectives, and most of the colonial policies remained unchanged. New industries were established around the fisheries, but most remained in the hands of Asians and a few African middlemen. The small-scale fishers continued to struggle against the commercialisation of fishery production, remaining voiceless and marginalised. The study recommends an all inclusive participatory approach to solve the problems currently affecting the Lake Victoria fisheries. 4 LIST OF KEY TERMS Social history, Luo fishers, small-scale fishers, indigenous technology, coping strategies, colonial regulations, overfishing, open access, commercialisation, new fish species. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS In the performance of a task of this nature many people, ranging from my oral informants along the beaches of Lake Victoria, to fisheries researchers and scholars, were consulted and their advice absorbed. In this regard there are several names that have sensitised, encouraged and guided me in researching and writing this thesis. Of great significance among the scholars is my Promoter, Dr. Muchaparara Musemwa of the University of South Africa (Unisa), who read my proposal numerous times, re- read it then read the several drafts of this study so often that I nearly lost count. His astuteness and academic exuberance was a fundamental contribution, without which this work would not have been what it is. In doing this onerous task, he was ably assisted by my co-promoter, Prof. Lance van Sittert of the University of Cape Town, who guided me by infusing new ideas, editorial work and corrections that trememndously improved the quality of this work. For more editing work, I am also acknowledging Tanya Barben of UNISA. Then there is Prof. B.A. Ogot, a pioneer Kenyan historian, the Chancellor of Moi University and a Professor Emeritus of History at Maseno University, near the shores of Lake Victoria, who not only encouraged me, but also read my first proposal at the outset telling me that the topic was ‘doable’. The opportunity to enrol for this course at Unisa was made possible by the generous link between the Kigali Institute of Education (K.I.E.) in Rwanda and Unisa in South Africa. This link gave me the chance to register, and provided me with the invaluable computer and internet connection that gave me access the all important data and networking as well as the opportunity to communicate with my supervisors. To all my informants along the beaches of the Lake I am forever grateful. The same 5 gratitude goes to staff members at the Kenya National Archives (K.N.A.), notably Peterson Kithuka, Evans Kiiru and Richard Ambani, for assisting me in locating crucial archival material. At Moi University, Kenya, I am grateful to the encouragement given to me by Prof. John J. Okumu, the Head of the Department of History, Political Science and Public Administration. As for my oral informants, I am forever indebted to them. To all of you keep up the good work and, God bless. 6 TABLE OF CONTENTS Pages CHAPTER ONE ……………………………………………………………… 16 Introduction: Fisheries Development, Indigenous Knowledge and Agency 15 1.1: Study Area ……………………………………………………………… 22 1.2: Social and Political Organisation ………………………………………… 26 1.3: Statement of the Problem …………………………………………………. 31 1.4: Research Question …………………………………………………………32 1.5: Objectives ………………………………………………………………... 32 1.6: Periodisation ………………………………………………………………. 33 1.7: Justification of the Study …………………………………………………..34 1.8: Hypotheses …………………………………………………………………35 1.9: Methodology 1.10 Colonial archival Documents ………………………………………..34 1.11 Oral Interviews ………………………………………………………34 1.12: Theoretical Framework ……………………………………………………37 1.13: Literature Review …………………………………………………………43 1.14: Conclusion ………………………………………………………………..57 CHAPTER TWO ………………………………………………………….. 63 Pre-Colonial Fishing Practices in Lake Victoria, 1880-1894 ……………..63 2.1: Introduction ……………………………………………………………...63 2.2: Patterns of Luo Settlement ……………………………………………….63 2.3: Social and Political Organisation of the Luo …………………………….65 2.4: The Role of Women ……………………………………………………..68 2.5: Indigenous Systems of Management and Organisation ………………… 71 2.6 Conservation Rules and Regulations ……………………………………. 73 2.7: Indigenous Fishing Technology ………………………………………… 79 2.8: Evolution of Fishing Canoes ……………………………………………..82 2.9: Fish Species in Lake Victoria ……………………………………………92 2.10: Indigenous Methods of Preservation …………………………………..95 7 2.11: Conclusion ………………………………………………………………98 CHAPTER THREE ……………………………………………………..100 Colonial Policy and the Coming of New Gear and Warnings on Over- fishing: 1895-1920 3.1 Introduction ……………………………………………………………100 3.2: The Coming of Colonial Rule …………………………………………101 3.3: The Coming of the Flax Gill Net …………………………………….103 3.4: The Colonial State and Fish Production …………………………… 107 3.5: The First World War and Fishing …………………………………...116 3.6: The Colonial State Management Ordinances ………………………..121 3.7: The Fishers’ Responses to State Ordinances ……………………….. 135 3.8: Conclusion …………………………………………………………. 142 CHAPTER FOUR ……………………………………………………… 143 The Policies on Accessibility and Management Fisheries: 1921-1944 4.1: Introduction ………………………………………………………….. 143 4.2: Colonial Policies and Fear of Overfishing …………………………... 144 4.3: Labour Supply ……………………………………………………….. 155 4.4: Open Access or Closed Acess on Lakes and Rivers ………………… 156 4.5: Regulation through Local Councils ………………………………….163 4.6: Licensing as a Regulatory Mechanism ………………………………165 4.7: Statutory Bodies …………………………………………………….. 170 4.8: Lake Victoria Fishery Boards and Other Bodies ……………………. 171 4.9: Conclusion ……………………………………………………………176 CHAPTER FIVE ...……………………………………………………177 Fish Marketing, Distribution Process and Co-operatives: 1945-1954 5.1: Introduction ………………………………………………………… 177 5.2: Fishmongers and Middlemen ………………………………………..178 5.3: The Wholesalers and the Bicycle ……………………………………. 179 5.4: Advent of Co-operatives and Supply of Nets …………………………. 183 8 5.5: Fishing Scouts, Politics and Licensing …………………………………190 5.6: Fish Marketing and Storage Problems ………………………………… 197 5.7: Conclusion ……………………………………………………………… 206 CHAPTER SIX ……………………………………………………………..207 Commercialisation, New Species and Technology: 1954-1965 6.1: Introduction