63076_om_kaupang_bind2_r1.qxd 29/07/08 8:05 Side 1 Published in the series Norske Oldfunn, Kaupang Excavation Project Museum of Cultural History, 2 Publication Series, Volume 2 University of Oslo Norske Oldfunn XXIII means This second volume concerning the excavations in the Viking-period town Kaupang in 1998–2003 examines types of find used in economic transactions: coins, silver ingots, hacksilver, balances and weights. Changes in the types and means of volume of economic transactions at Kaupang and in Scandinavia are discussed, and the economic thought-world of Viking-age craftsmen and traders explored. The study of Viking silver currency has previously been based mainly on hoards. In this volume, the integrated study of the types of finds noted, in light of of the detailed chronology of settlement finds from sites such as Kaupang, sheds exchange completely new light upon economy and exchange. In the early 9th century, long-distance trade goods seem to have come to Kaupang mainly from the Carolingian world. In the earliest phase, transactions exchange were made using commodities as payment within a commodity-money system. From c. 825 silver weighed using locally produced lead weights, and possibly also Western coins, was used as currency on a limited scale. The old øre weight-unit was easily convertible into Carolingian measures. After the mid-9th century, trade with Carolingian regions declined and Kaupang was more heavily involved in trade with the Baltic. The greater supply of silver resulting from the importation, via eastern Scandinavia, of Islamic coins, as well as the introduction in most of Scandinavia of standardized weights of probably Islamic origin, paved the way for an increasing use of silver in pay- ment from then on. These studies demonstrate that urban communities like Kaupang led the way in the development of means of payment and types of trade in Viking-age Scandinavia. In earlier times and in rural areas, trade took place within tight social networks where economic agency was socially sanctioned and prices were fixed by tradition. Urban long-distance trade was less dependent of such net- works and therefore provided space for traders and craftsmen openly to display their economic agency. This development was encouraged by the urban environ- ment, which housed a non-food-producing population dependent on numerous daily transactions to survive. By easing the traditional constraints on the econo- my and so allowing for economic expansion, the Viking towns contributed significantly to the fundamental transformation of Scandinavian culture and society around the turn of the millennium. Edited by dagfinn skre a Aarhus University Press isbn 978 87 7934 308 5 ,!7II7H9-dedaif! 63076_kaupang_bd2.qxd 29/07/08 9:53 Side 1 Means of Exchange Dealing with Silver in the Viking Age This page is protected by copyright and may not be redistributed 63076_kaupang_bd2.qxd 29/07/08 9:53 Side 2 63076_kaupang_bd2.qxd 29/07/08 9:53 Side 3 Means of Exchange Dealing with Silver in the Viking Age Edited by Dagfinn Skre Kaupang Excavation Project Publication Series, Volume 2 Norske Oldfunn XXIII This page is protected by copyright and may not be redistributed 63076_kaupang_bd2.qxd 29/07/08 9:53 Side 4 Means of Exchange Dealing with SilverSilver in in the the Viking Viking Age Age Kaupang Excavation Project Project Publication Publication Series, Series, Volume Volume 2 2 Norske Oldfunn XXIIIXXIII © Aarhus UniversityUniversity Press Press & the Kaupang ExcavationExcavation Project, Project, University University of of Oslo Oslo 2007 2007 Published as partpart of of the the series series Norske Norske Oldfunn, Oldfunn, Museum of Cultural History,History, UniversityUniversity of of Oslo Oslo English translation: JohnJohn Hines Hines Language revision: FrankFrank Azevedo, Azevedo, John John Hines Hines Technical editing: DagfinnDagfinn Skre Skre Map production: Julie K.K. ØhreØhre Askjem, Askjem, Anne Anne Engesveen Engesveen IllustrationIllustration editing: EliseElise Naumann, Naumann, Julie Julie K. K. Øhre Øhre Askjem Askjem Cover illustration: Coins,Coins, silver silver and and weights weights found found at at Kaupang. Kaupang. Photo, Eirik I. Johnsen,Johnsen, KHM KHM Graphic design, typesettingtypesetting and and cover: cover: Jørgen Jørgen Sparre Sparre Type: Minion and LinotypeLinotype Syntax Syntax E-bookPaper: PhoeniXmotion production:Production: Narayana Xantur, Press, 135 g Denmark Printed by Narayana Press, Denmark ISBNPrinted 978-87-7124-432-8 in Denmark 2008 CopyrightISBN 978-87-7934-308-5 maps: Contour distances 1 meter: The Muncipality of Larvik ContourCopyright distances maps: 5 metres: Norwegian Mapping and Cadastre Autority Scandinavia,Contour distances Europe: 1 meter: ESRI The Muncipality of Larvik Contour distances 5 metres: Norwegian Mapping and Cadastre Autority Scandinavia, Europe: ESRI Weblinks were active when the book was printed. They may no longer be active The University of Oslo wishes to thank the financial contributors to the Kaupang Excavation Project: Ministry of the Environment The Anders Jahre Humanitarian Foundation Ministry of Education and Research Vestfold County Council Ministry of Culture and Church Affairs The Municipality of Larvik The Research Council of Norway Arts Council Norway 63076_kaupang_bd2.qxd 29/07/08 9:53 Side 5 Contents 1 Dagfinn Skre Introduction 9 1.1 Rethinking the substantivist approach 9 1.2 The present volume 10 1.3 Future volumes 11 2 Lars Pilø, Dagfinn Skre Introduction to the Site 13 2.1 Exploring Kaupang and Skiringssal 1771–1999 13 2.2.1 The cemeteries 14 2.1.2 The settlement 15 2.2 Fieldwork in the Kaupang settlement 1998-2003 17 2.2.1 Research questions 17 2.2.2 Overview 17 Surveys 17 Excavations 18 Method of excavation 18 2.2.3 Contexts 20 2.3 Investigations in Skiringssal 1999–2001 23 2.3.1 Fieldwork at Huseby 1999–2001 24 2.4 Main results 1998–2003 24 Part I: The Kaupang Finds 27 3 Mark Blackburn The Coin-finds 29 3.1 The coin-finds: discovery and context 30 3.1.1 The earlier finds, 1950–1974 30 3.1.2 The new finds, 1998–2003 30 3.2 The interpretation of site finds 34 3.2.1 The need to determine typical patterns of loss 35 3.2.2 A sample of single finds from Southern Scandinavia 36 3.2.3 Date of production versus date of loss 38 3.2.4 Changes in the currency in the early 10th century 39 3.2.5 Considering changes in the size of the coin-stock and the wastage rate 41 3.2.6 Are the hoards representative of the local currency? 43 3.2.7 Is the archaeological evidence from Birka inconsistent with the hoard evidence? 45 3.3 The Kaupang finds: their significance for the chronology of the site 47 3.3.1 The Islamic dirhams 47 contents 5 This page is protected by copyright and may not be redistributed 63076_kaupang_bd2.qxd 29/07/08 9:53 Side 6 3.3.2 The 9th-century Western coins 56 3.3.3 The Roman, Merovingian and Byzantine coins 58 3.4 The spatial distribution within the site 62 3.5 Fragmentation, graffiti and other secondary treatment of the coins 63 3.5.1 Fragmentation 64 3.5.2 Whole coins and pendants 66 3.5.3 Bending and nicking 66 3.5.4 Graffiti 67 3.6 The coins found at Huseby 68 3.7 Summary and conclusions 69 Appendices: Data on which find histograms are based 72 4 Gert Rispling, Mark Blackburn and Kenneth Jonsson Catalogue of the Coins 75 5 Birgitta Hårdh Hacksilver and Ingots 95 5.1 Introduction 95 5.2 The Kaupang silver finds of 1998–2002 96 5.3 Silver finds from Charlotte Blindheim’s excavations 1950–1974 97 5.4 Silver as currency 97 5.5 The hacksilver 99 5.5.1 Analysis of the hacksilver by weight 100 5.6 Ingots 103 5.6.1 The large Kaupang ingot 106 5.6.2 The small Kaupang ingots 107 5.6.3 A local production of ingots? 108 5.7 Spiral-striated rods 108 5.8 Fragmented jewellery 113 5.9 Hacksilver from well-dated contexts 114 5.10 Discussion 115 5.11 Summary 118 6 Unn Pedersen Weights and Balances 119 6.1 Graves and settlement – two different worlds? 120 6.1.1 Types of weight at Kaupang 121 6.1.2 Types of balance at Kaupang 126 6.1.3 Representativity 127 6.2 A radical change from the 9th to the 10th century? 130 6.2.1 The chronological distribution of weights in the settlement 130 6.2.2 Dating of the weight-types 131 6.2.3 A chronological change? 132 6.2.4 Two different groups of weights? 136 6.3 Weight-standard 138 6.3.1 Accuracy 138 6.3.2 Standards 140 6.3.3 The weight of well-preserved weights from the settlement 144 6.3.4 Punched-dot decoration on the weights from the settlement 148 6.4 The weights – function and meaning 155 6.4.1 The spatial distribution of weights in the settlement 155 6.4.2 Tools of trade 159 6.4.3 Weights and metalcasting 166 6.4.4 Weights and symbolic meaning 168 6.5 Summary 177 Appendices 179 6 means of exchange This page is protected by copyright and may not be redistributed 63076_kaupang_bd2_r01.qxd 06/08/08 9:54 Side 7 Part II: Silver, Trade and Towns 197 7 Christoph Kilger Kaupang from Afar: Aspects of the Interpretation of Dirham Finds in Northern and Eastern Europe between the Late 8th and Early 10th Centuries 199 7.1 Introduction 200 Dirham finds from Kaupang 201 The early Viking-period trading sites as dirham zones 205 The dominant 10th century 207 The questions 208 7.2 Phasing 208 A general summary of the finds 209 Geographical terminology 209 Methodological principles 210 7.3 The Caucasian link (Phase I, t.p.q.