The Pennsylvania State University The Graduate School College of Earth and Mineral Sciences ECOTOURISM’S ROLE IN POSITIVE LAND-USE AND LAND-COVER CHANGE IN A COSTA RICAN TROPICAL MONTANE CLOUD FOREST A Thesis in Geography by John L. Morrow ©2010 John L. Morrow Submitted in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree of Master of Science MAY 2010 The thesis of John L. Morrow was reviewed and approved* by the following: Deryck W. Holdsworth Professor of Geography Thesis Advisor Brian H. King Assistant Professor of Geography Karl S. Zimmerer Professor of Geography Head of the Department of Geography *Signatures are on file in the Graduate School ii ABSTRACT Ecotourism’s Role in Positive Land-Use and Land-Cover Change in a Costa Rican Tropical Montane Cloud Forest Tropical Montane Cloud Forests (TMCFs) are among the most fragile and biologically diverse of all ecosystems on Earth. However, little is known about TMCF cover change for periods longer than 30 years at local scales. The purpose of this study is to explain and estimate TMCF cover changes for a 65-year period of time beginning in 1941, in a small, steep-sloping, montane environment located in the upper Savegre River watershed in both Dota and Pérez Zeledón counties, San José Province, Costa Rica. Thus, this study investigates how global and national drivers shape local land-use and land-cover change (LULCC) on the basis of retrospective monitoring – by interpreting historical sets of aerial photographs (1941, 1956, 1969, 1973, 1984, 1992, 1997) and a satellite image (2006) – in combination with ground data collected in 1996, 2001, and 2009. Typically, LULCC studies focus on patterns of negative land- cover change, mainly deforestation, primarily because positive examples are not common. However, over the past 20 years an excellent case of forest recovery has taken place as a result of numerous socioeconomic and biophysical factors. Chief among these factors has been the boom in ecotourism, both in the study area and within Costa Rica. The results from this analysis are quite hopeful and can assist policy makers and land managers at the regional and national levels in other tropical mountain locations to understand the impacts of economic, political, and social factors on local land users. KEY WORDS: Tropical Montane Cloud Forest, Land-Use and Land-Cover Change, Deforestation, Forest Recovery, Ecotourism, Savegre River, Costa Rica iii Table of Contents List of Figures .......................................................................................................... viii List of Tables .............................................................................................................. x Abbreviations and acronyms ...................................................................................... xi Acknowledgements ............................................................................................. xiv Chapter 1 – Introduction ................................................................................................ 1 1.1 – Issues ............................................................................................................. 1 1.2 – Purpose and Approach of Study .................................................................. 3 1.3 – Thesis Outline ............................................................................................ 7 Chapter 2 – Ecotourism’s Origins: The Global Context ................................................ 10 2.1 – Introduction ................................................................................................... 10 2.2 – The Development of Ecotourism .............................................................. 11 2.2.1 – Concern for the Environment ........................................................... 11 2.2.2 – Sustainable Development .............................................................. 18 2.2.3 – Concern over the Impacts of Tourism ................................................. 20 2.2.4 – Concern for Communities .............................................................. 25 2.3 –The Emergence of the Concept of Ecotourism ............................................... 28 2.4 – Ecotourism’s Contemporary Development .............................................. 32 2.4.1 – Ecotourism as an Experience: Definitional Developments ............... 32 2.4.2 – Ecotourism as a Sub-field of Study ..................................................... 35 2.4.3 – Ecotourism as a Major Segment of the Tourism Industry .................. 36 2.4.4 – Ecotourism and Certification ............................................................. 38 2.5 – Conclusion ................................................................................................. 39 iv Chapter 3 – Ecotourism in Costa Rica: The National Context ............................... 40 3.1 – Introduction .................................................................................................. 40 3.2 – History of Ecotourism’s Development ........................................................... 41 3.2.1 – Research and Education ...................................................................... 41 3.2.2 – Development and the Environmental Problem ............................... 47 3.2.3 – Preservation and the Conservationist Solution ................................. 53 3.3 – Ecotourism’s Contemporary Development .............................................. 56 3.3.1 – The Growth of the National Park System ........................................... 57 3.3.2 – Tourism’s Phases of Development, 1980-2001 .................................. 58 3.3.3 – The Negative Impacts of Tourism ..................................................... 60 3.4 – Evaluation and Certification of Tourism .................................................. 62 3.4.1 – The New Key to Costa Rica ................................................................. 63 3.4.2 – Certification for Sustainable Tourism ................................................ 64 3.4.3 – The Blue Flag Ecological Program ..................................................... 66 3.5 – Conclusion ................................................................................................. 66 Chapter 4 – Ecotourism and the Upper Savegre River Watershed: The Local Context .................................................................. 68 4.1 – Introduction .................................................................................................. 68 4.2 – Study Area ................................................................................................. 69 4.3 – Tropical Montane Cloud Forests ................................................................. 72 4.3.1 – Definition of Tropical Montane Cloud Forests ..................................... 73 4.3.2 – Importance of Tropical Montane Cloud Forests ............................. 75 4.4 – San Gerardo de Dota: The Early Years .......................................................... 79 4.4.1 – Exploration and Settlement (1954-1957) ........................................... 81 4.4.2 – Connection and Community (1957-1965) ................................... 85 v 4.5 – The Years of Great Opportunities (1965-1976) ........................................ 86 4.5.1 – Road Construction ............................................................................. 88 4.5.2 – Land Expansion and Ownership .................................................... 89 4.5.3 – Dairy Farming ............................................................................... 91 4.5.4 – The School “La Lidia” .................................................................. 94 4.5.5 – Rainbow Trout and Fishing ................................................................ 94 4.5.6 – Fruit Tree Cultivation ..................................................................... 100 4.6 – The Years of Great Growth (1973-1986) .................................................. 102 4.7 – Origin and Development of Ecotourism in the Valley (1975-1994) .................................................... 103 4.8 – Contemporary Ecotourism in the Valley (1994-2007) ................................... 109 4.9 – Ecotourism Certification Programs in the Valley (2008-2009) ................ 114 4.10 – Conclusion ............................................................................................. 115 Chapter 5 – Land-Use/Land-Cover Change in the Upper Savegre River Watershed: 1941-2006 .................................. 117 5.1 – Introduction ............................................................................................... 117 5.2 – Overview of Land-Use/Land-Cover Change ............................................... 118 5.3 – Brief History of Land Cover Classification in Costa Rica ............................ 122 5.4 – A New Ecological Classification System ........................................................ 123 5.5 – Methods .................................................................................................. 128 5.6 – Results ............................................................................................. 133 5.7 – Conclusion ............................................................................................... 139 Chapter 6 – Discussion ..................................................................................... 141 6.1 – Introduction .......................................................................................