University of Bath PHD Oil Governance in the Niger Delta Exploring the role of the Militias Tantua, Ben Award date: 2015 Awarding institution: University of Bath Link to publication Alternative formats If you require this document in an alternative format, please contact: [email protected] General rights Copyright and moral rights for the publications made accessible in the public portal are retained by the authors and/or other copyright owners and it is a condition of accessing publications that users recognise and abide by the legal requirements associated with these rights. • Users may download and print one copy of any publication from the public portal for the purpose of private study or research. • You may not further distribute the material or use it for any profit-making activity or commercial gain • You may freely distribute the URL identifying the publication in the public portal ? Take down policy If you believe that this document breaches copyright please contact us providing details, and we will remove access to the work immediately and investigate your claim. Download date: 26. Sep. 2021 OIL GOVERNANCE IN THE NIGER DELTA: EXPLORING THE ROLE OF THE MILITIAS Submitted by Ben Tantua for the degree of Ph.D. of the University of BATH 2015 COPYRIGHT Attention is drawn to the fact that copyright of this thesis rest with its author. This copy of thesis has been supplied on condition that anyone who consults it is understood to recognise that its copyright rests with its author and that no quotation from the thesis and no information derived from it may be published without the prior written consent of the author. This thesis may be made available for consultation within the University Library and may be photocopied or lent to other libraries for the purpose of consultation. DEDICATION Dedicated to my Dad Late Chief Ebikebina Tantua Taingbe II JP 1929 – 2014 For the Sacrifice i ACKNOWLEDGEMENT My sincere gratitude to Dr Joe Devine and Dr Roy Maconachie for the encouragement and support in this journey and shaping my thought processes in the academic world. I might one day set “foot in your big boats”. I also thank Prof James Copestake, Dr Ana Dinerstein, Dr Severine Deneulin, Dr Emma Carmel, Dr Kate Woodthrope, Dr Susan Johnson, Dr Palash Kamruzzaman, Dr Althea Maria Rivas, Dr Jason Hart, Dr Hedley Bashforth, and Dr Shahid, for being part of my journey and learning curve. To Gabby Davies, Tigist, Justin, Tim, Richardo, Luke, Thomais, Emmanuel, Abid, Oscar, Viviana, Sung Hee lee, Roger, Pattharapon, Cheng, Silvia, Anh Vu Ngoc, Didem, Chloe, Sara, Doreen Abalo, Emmanuel Kumi, Sam Webb, Fay Hugh and Luke, for warmth friendship, concern and encouragement at BATH. I remain grateful to late Gen Owoye Azazi, Hon Kingsley Kuku, Arc Miebi Bribena , Oyambo Owei, Nengi Teitei, Nimi Norlan, Roo D’ Roo, Agundu, Arc Kentebe, Julie Okah, Dr Sabella, Newton Owei, Isaac Tee, ThankGod, Dr Ekpos Waritimi, Dr Youpele Banigo, Dr Engobo Emeseh, Andy Apinneh, Dr Felix Tuodolo, Dr Faith Robert, Dr Irani Isukul, for the love and support. My final word goes to my lovely Wife Gesiere Tantua for being there through thick and thin, and my sisters Dear Lady Ebiye Tantua, Akpoutu Gimba aka Akpos Darlyn, Helen Hayford, My brothers Perekeme Tantua, Diseye Tantua, Tari Tantua. ii ABSTRACT This thesis explores the complex voices of militants, associated with the capture of oil resources in the Niger Delta region of Nigeria. The persistent violent conflict involving militant groups in the Niger Delta region of Nigeria is a major concern for many within the country and the international community. Understanding the conflict in the Niger Delta has triggered a wide range of discussions and debates among researchers, politicians and policy makers. However, these debates have overlooked the views of the militants, who are actively engaged in the conflict over resource governance in the region. Moreover the ideology of self-determination and resource control, which these militants use to legitimise their actions, seem to generate different meanings and labelling that tend to cloud an understandings of the conflict in the region. In this thesis, I adopt the theoretical assumptions of the New Social Movement literature and the epistemological views of the Interpretivist Social Constructionist approach to explore (a) what features shaped the emergence of militancy and its diverse forms (b) how do militias make sense of their role as militants? (c) how does the role of militias impact on the politics of oil governance in the Niger Delta? I argue that militia actions that appear to challenge the legitimacy and authority of the Nigerian state to control oil resources, are embedded in complex webs involving formal and informal interactions of political elites and militia leaders. From analysis of this research, key dominant concepts such as Identity, opportunism and competition, emerged to give insight as to why and how militancy has become significant in the region. iii TABLE OF CONTENTS DEDICATION ...................................................................................................... i ACKNOWLEDGEMENT ...................................................................................... ii ABSTRACT ...................................................................................................... iii TABLE OF CONTENTS...................................................................................... iv LISTS OF FIGURES .......................................................................................... vi INTRODUCTION ................................................................................................ 1 1.1. Introduction .................................................................................................. 5 1.2. Research Rationale and Background Context ................................................. 5 1.2.1 Contemporary Views of the Niger Delta Conflict ............................................ 9 1.3. NSM: An Approach for understanding the Niger Delta Militancy ...................... 14 1.3.1. Characteristics of New Social Movement ................................................... 16 1.4. Militancy: As shared set of opinions/beliefs: identity ....................................... 18 1.4.1. Militancy: As Collective Action/Strategic Choice .......................................... 20 1.4.2. Militancy: as organised structures, tactical identity/transformation ................ 21 1.4.3. Militancy: Conflict and Power .................................................................... 22 1.5. Conclusion ................................................................................................. 23 Chapter Two: Significance of resource extraction ................................................. 25 2.1. Introduction ................................................................................................ 25 2.2. Global and Regional Policies of Resource Extraction ..................................... 27 2.3. Historical structure of Nigeria’s socio-political economy .................................. 28 2.3.2. Ethnic politics and issues of identity ........................................................... 31 2.3.3. Structure –Agency relations ...................................................................... 33 2.3.4. Policies of resource extraction .................................................................. 34 2.4. Political repression ..................................................................................... 37 2.5. Identity formations: individual and collective agents ....................................... 40 2.6. Trajectory of militancy ................................................................................. 40 2.7. Conclusion ................................................................................................. 42 Chapter Three: Epistemology and Methods ......................................................... 43 3.3. The Fieldwork: Research Site .................................................................. 47 3.4. Negotiating Access .................................................................................. 49 3.5 Negotiating ‘People and Data’ ...................................................................... 49 3.6. Negotiating ‘Reflexivity’ ............................................................................ 57 3.7. Positionality ............................................................................................. 60 3.8. Process of Data Analysis .......................................................................... 62 3.9. Conclusion ............................................................................................... 63 Chapter Four: The Emergence of Militancy in the Niger Delta Region of Nigeria ..... 66 4.1. Introduction ................................................................................................ 66 4.2. Feeling of Oppression: 1956-1999 ............................................................... 67 4.3. Perception of Minority Status ....................................................................... 68 4.4. Collective Agency: Ideological battles and threats of secession ...................... 69 4.4.1. Significance of Ideology: agency and the framing of oppression ................... 70 4.5. Political repression: The role of the State ...................................................... 74 4.6. The spread of contention: The Ogoni Uprising ..............................................