University of Wisconsin Milwaukee UWM Digital Commons Theses and Dissertations May 2019 Minors in the Mines: Archaeological Indicators of Child Labor in Prehistoric Mining Contexts in Europe Nikita K. Werner University of Wisconsin-Milwaukee Follow this and additional works at: https://dc.uwm.edu/etd Part of the Archaeological Anthropology Commons Recommended Citation Werner, Nikita K., "Minors in the Mines: Archaeological Indicators of Child Labor in Prehistoric Mining Contexts in Europe" (2019). Theses and Dissertations. 2267. https://dc.uwm.edu/etd/2267 This Thesis is brought to you for free and open access by UWM Digital Commons. It has been accepted for inclusion in Theses and Dissertations by an authorized administrator of UWM Digital Commons. For more information, please contact [email protected]. MINORS IN THE MINES: ARCHAEOLOGICAL INDICATORS OF CHILD LABOR IN PREHISTORIC MINING CONTEXTS IN EUROPE by Nikita K. Werner A Thesis Submitted in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree of Master of Science in Anthropology at The University of Wisconsin-Milwaukee May 2019 ABSTRACT MINORS IN THE MINES: ARCHAEOLOGICAL INDICATORS OF CHILD LABOR IN PREHISTORIC MINING CONTEXTS IN EUROPE by Nikita K. Werner The University of Wisconsin-Milwaukee, 2019 Under the Supervision of Professor Bettina Arnold Developing a theoretical and methodological framework for the study of children, childhood, and child labor in prehistory has two goals. The first is to reintegrate children into cultural narratives in light of the increased popularity of the topic among archaeologists; the second is to equip researchers with the tools to apply developing theories to prehistoric populations in which there is material and physical evidence of child labor. Using the prehistoric mining complex of Hallstatt in alpine Austria as a case study, this thesis highlights how a reevaluation of existing data can provide a more inclusive interpretation of childhood even in the distant past. By viewing the existing material and biological evidence through the theoretical lens of Grete Lillehammer’s child’s world, and incorporating additional lines of evidence through analogy, a child-centric analysis can be generated. Future directions for the study of children and childhood in prehistoric mining contexts are discussed in the course of demonstrating the unique opportunity these communities provide to discuss childhood in occupationally specialized societies. ii © Copyright by Nikita K. Werner, 2019 All Rights Reserved iii TABLE OF CONTENTS List of Figures .............................................................................................................................. vii List of Tables ................................................................................................................................ ix Acknowledgements ...................................................................................................................... xi Chapter One: Introduction .......................................................................................................... 1 Research Questions ..................................................................................................................... 3 Primary Questions ................................................................................................................... 3 Secondary Questions ............................................................................................................... 4 Literature Review ........................................................................................................................ 5 Children and Childhood in Archaeology................................................................................. 5 Childhood as a Social Construct ............................................................................................. 8 Grete Lillehammer and the Child’s World ............................................................................ 10 Child Labor in Proto-Industrial Societies ............................................................................. 14 Participation versus Exploitation .......................................................................................... 15 Mining: Environmental and Human Ecology ........................................................................ 16 Theoretical Approach ................................................................................................................ 21 A Phenomenological Approach ............................................................................................. 21 Socialization and the Experience of Childhood .................................................................... 23 Play ........................................................................................................................................ 26 Socialization and Movement of People ................................................................................. 27 Going Forward .......................................................................................................................... 29 Chapter Two: Prehistoric Mining in Europe ........................................................................... 31 Archaeological Context ............................................................................................................. 31 Mining in Prehistoric Europe .................................................................................................... 32 Resource Extraction in Prehistoric Europe ............................................................................... 37 Flint ....................................................................................................................................... 37 Metal ...................................................................................................................................... 42 iv Salt ......................................................................................................................................... 47 Summary ................................................................................................................................... 50 Chapter Three: Methodology .................................................................................................... 52 Case Site: Hallstatt, Austria ...................................................................................................... 53 Salt Mines and Preservation.................................................................................................. 56 Types of Evidence at Hallstatt .................................................................................................. 57 Sources of Evidence .................................................................................................................. 57 Excavation History ................................................................................................................ 57 Recent Analyses ..................................................................................................................... 61 Compilation of Child Burial Data ............................................................................................. 67 Data and Research Parameters ............................................................................................. 67 Definitions ............................................................................................................................. 69 Working Dataset .................................................................................................................... 72 Bioarchaeological Evidence .................................................................................................. 75 Material Evidence .................................................................................................................. 78 Mortuary Evidence ................................................................................................................ 79 Single Child Burials at Hallstatt ........................................................................................... 81 Limitations ............................................................................................................................. 85 Applying the Theoretical Framework to the Dataset ................................................................ 86 Chapter Four: Analysis .............................................................................................................. 88 Indicators of Child Labor at Hallstatt ........................................................................................ 89 Possible Tasks........................................................................................................................ 89 Divisions of Labor at Hallstatt .................................................................................................. 98 Divisions by Age .................................................................................................................... 98 Divisions by Gender ............................................................................................................ 102 Divisions by Ability and Stature .......................................................................................... 104 Changing Labor Needs and Child Labor in Prehistoric Europe.............................................. 106