ETHNO-RELIGIOUS CONFLICTS AND GENDER IN NIGERIA’S MIDDLE BELT BY PLANGSAT BITRUS DAYIL SUPERVISED BY Insa Nolte CO SUPERVISOR Karin Baber A thesis submitted to the University of Birmingham for the Degree of DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY Department of African Studies and Anthropology School of History and Cultures University of Birmingham April 2015 University of Birmingham Research Archive e-theses repository This unpublished thesis/dissertation is copyright of the author and/or third parties. The intellectual property rights of the author or third parties in respect of this work are as defined by The Copyright Designs and Patents Act 1988 or as modified by any successor legislation. Any use made of information contained in this thesis/dissertation must be in accordance with that legislation and must be properly acknowledged. Further distribution or reproduction in any format is prohibited without the permission of the copyright holder. ABSTRACT This thesis explores and analyses the impact of ethno-religious conflicts in the city of Jos and other parts of the Middle Belt and Nigeria on gender relations and the lives of women. The thesis addresses the question of the impact of conflict on women beyond loss of life and property as seen in other literature. It shows how ongoing conflictual relations that are not always violent, but include aspects of political competition disadvantage women. The research locations covered by this research are urban areas. Data for this research was gathered through interviews and Focus Group Discussions (FGDs) with 102 respondents, recruited through purposive sampling and willingness to participate in the interview. This thesis argues that the conflict dynamics affect the life chances of women on different levels because women are associated with the transcendence or transgression of group boundaries in their private life. The growing importance of group boundaries means that women’s life choices, such as marriage, are increasingly subject to public comment and criticism. Beyond the private, the growing importance of group boundaries makes it increasingly difficult for women to participate in typically female activities such as trading and selling in local markets. At the political level, the desire for ever smaller groups to be recognised works against the representation of women, who are seen as being much less capable than men of representing group interests. And within the public sector, too, the fallout from the crisis means that women here are also subject to increasing control and scrutiny. DEDICATION To My Husband Bitrus Dayil Duwong and Our Children; Kwoopnan, Kyermun, King-Karshak and Beelong for enduring my absence. And to Kyenpiya Ayuba Afang 1973 to 2014 A Dear Sister who is greatly missed, but happily remembered and cherished. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS I am thankful to God Almighty for his Grace and sustenance throughout this programme. I first of all wish to thank my supervisor Dr Insa Nolte, who sharpened my thoughts and guided me through this research. I am grateful for the encouragement she gave in 2014 when I lost my sister. I could not have continued the programme without her direction and support. I always looked forward to our supervision meetings which were rigorous and tough, yet a fun and productive process. I will forever remain grateful to you. Thank you also to my lovely husband Bitrus Dayil Duwong and our children: Kwoopnan, Kyermun, King-Karshak and Beelong, whose encouragement has made me strong throughout the study - you have in so many unspoken ways lifted my spirit whenever I felt weak. Many thanks to my parents, Mr Dachi Dankah Gunat and Mrs Rahila Gunat, who took me to school at an early age and have always encouraged me to work hard I appreciate the constant phone calls, advice, prayer, support and words of encouragement- Da’Nan wuri le diret kiri kha wun, in plang des zam. To my brothers and sisters Namis, Pankyes, Nanfwang, Nankling, Peret, and Mercy, thank you for constantly checking on the kids during my absence. I have learnt through the years how crucial the encouragement of family and support is to success. I deeply appreciate my in-laws; Sunday A. Afang, Micheal D. Lamu, Dr Luka Solomon, Nankling Nanfwang, Nanlop, Dinah, Aunty Nakris, Kaka Napwas and Dikam Duwong for being so supportive. I am also deeply appreciative that Leyit and Mercy patiently kept up with the children while I was away and Hulda, Na’omi and Nanlop who diligently watched over the home and kept things in order. Thank you to my little cousins, nephews and nieces; Nanman, Nandes, Dyenkinan, Baby Diret, Baby Chat and Zugumnaan, who spent many weekends and holidays at my house playing with my children to reduce the burden of loneliness caused by my absence. I have learnt so much from your solidarity. To my colleagues at the University of Jos especially Prof Sunny Gwanle Tyoden for believing in me and nominating me for the Tertiary Education Training Fund (TET Fund) scholarship. I thank Prof Habu Galadima for encouraging me to pursue this doctorate and shaping my thoughts on the draft proposal; Prof Ja’adeyiba Gwamma and Prof Shedrack Best for mentoring me and providing advice and support; Prof S. S. Maimako, Mr Adakai Amaya, Dr Bonaventure Nkup Haruna, Prof Dung Pam Sha and Dr Juliana Malmucit whose words of encouragement energised me. I feel enormously privileged for the useful comments and suggestions from scholars who include; Prof Jil Vickers of Carleton University; Dr John Chesworth of the Oxford Centre for Muslim-Christian Relations; and Prof Julius Adekunle of Monmouth University. My gratitude to Prof Alemika of the University of Jos, who made initial comments on my methodology during my pilot study. I am particularly grateful to Prof Samuel Zalanga of Bethel University for his valuable feedback and generous comments on most of my draft chapters and for sharing his thoughts on my research and leading me to further resources. I am grateful to everyone who helped me with my field work. Special appreciation goes to Fidelia Piwuna, Sadiq Abubakar and Longmam Pienswang for arranging interviews and Judith Danfulani for transcribing most of the lengthy interviews. Thank you also to the Jos North Peace Ambassadors, especially Mallam Ahmed Adamu, for leading me through the no-go-areas and a member of staff of the Red Cross who assisted greatly but wants to remain anonymous. Numerous Governmental and Non-Governmental Organisations were helpful during my field work. I am grateful to Dr Joseph Golwa and John Ochugwu of the Institute of Peace and Conflict Resolution (IPCR), for assisting during my pilot study; Rev Father Kasam Basil of the Justice Development Peace Caritas (JDPC) for helping out with contacts and resources; and Rev Simon Goro of the Centre for Peace Advocacy in Nigeria (CEPAN) for providing printed primary literature. I have benefitted greatly from my association with the Institute of Governance and Social Research (IGSR). A special thank you to Prof Jonah Isawa Eliagwu for giving me the opportunity to be part of the institute’s work on ending the cycle of violence and Peace Building in Jos, and for letting me have unrestricted access to the IGSR library and the support staff throughout the course of this study, and to Celestine Ukatu who manages the IGSR library and sent me resources at short notice. Many people made my stay in Birmingham a memorable one. Dr Ndubuisi and Chioma Nwokolo and their lovely children Zara, Kosi and Chikamso provided me with warmth, comfort and a home in Birmingham whenever I needed one. To Mariama Mba, Dr Folasade Hunsu, Sekela Mwandosya, thank you for the lovely time we shared. Special thanks to Rev Atunde Simon and Evangelical Church Winning All (ECWA) Birmingham for their spiritual support. Thank you to Rev Dr Emmanuel and Lucy Sule, for the insightful advice and hospitality. I shall also never forget the hospitality and warmth I experienced when I visited Bristol at the invitation of Gordon and Hillary Hulmes to share part of my research with the Royal African Society (RAS) of Bristol and their early comments on my work. Thank you to other members of RAS, Janet Kirk and Veronica Connolly, for the support and materials. I treasure Dr Chikas Danfulani, Mary Mailafiya, Cecilia Bako-Joseph, Lohna Bonkat, Tongret Kparbong, Nancy Katu and the entire ‘Mat Mwaghavul’ of Dahwol for their friendship and support. To all the staff of the Department of African Studies and Anthropology, University of Birmingham, thank you for your constructive comments. I am grateful especially to David Kerr for inviting me to share your food and for the lively entertainment whenever the Cadbury Fellows were around. Special thanks to the traditional rulers and community heads especially- HRH Alh Abdullahi Mohammed Adudu (Sangari Adudu, Nasarawa State), HRH Chief Nuhu Bature (Agwom Bajju, Kaduna State) and HRH Chief Daniel Ayuba Abomste (Tor Iyoshin, NAGI II, Benue State) for sharing their wealth of knowledge and materials which enriched my study. I am grateful to all those who granted me interviews, especially on inter-faith marriage and politics, for sharing their personal life experiences and contacting me even after the end of the field work. Their perseverance amidst enormous adversity is inspiring. Thank you to the many teachers, traders, youths and NGOs for generously giving me their time. I am grateful to those who trusted me and gave me permission to use their real names, which I was unable to do for ethical reasons. Finally, my Gratitude goes to the TET Fund and the University of Jos leadership for the financial and institutional support that facilitated this study. TABLE OF CONTENTS Page CHAPTER ONE: INTRODUCTION/REVIEW OF LITERATURE…..................................................1 1.1 Introduction....................................................................................................1 1.2Statement of the Problem ……….………………………………………………...3 1.3 Objectives of the Research.............................................................................4 1.4 Significance of the Research...................................................