Afghanistan before the Invasions: The Subversion of Democracy in 1973 Khalida Ramyar A Thesis submitted to the Faculty of Graduate Studies in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree of Master of Arts Graduate Program in Sociology York University Toronto, Ontario May 2015 © Khalida Ramyar, 2015 Abstract Using the Wikileaks PlusD Archive of US State Department cables from Kabul in 1973, this thesis presents an analysis of the politics of the Helmand Water Treaty between Afghanistan and Iran and the role of the US in Afghanistan's politics at the time. The analysis of the cables shows: a) that US policy was directed towards the promotion of neoliberalism in Afghanistan; b) that Afghanistan in 1973 was the site of a largely neglected struggle for democracy, and c) that the US, as well as the Afghan establishment, worked together to suppress this democratic struggle. These broader political dynamics are illustrated through a focus on the Helmand Water Treaty as discussed in the cables. ii Dedication For my love Justin, without whom nothing is possible, and for Cyrus, my little Halfghan, for whom I hope this narrative fills some of the gaps in the road to self-discovery. iii Acknowledgements I would like to thank: My supervisors, Tania Das Gupta, and Michael Nijhawan, for giving me a lot of freedom and flexibility, for believing in the story, and for being endlessly helpful. The Graduate Program Director of Sociology when I entered the program, Kathy Bischoping, for giving my application a chance. My family, and especially Mom and Dad, for providing the inspiration to find the truth. Wikileaks, for organizing and coding and bridging the missing pieces of data that made it possible to discover this story. I would like to thank all of our hosts in Kabul, including those who wish to remain anonymous, for making what would otherwise be a difficult reconciliation with the city of my birth a gentle and adventurous experience. A special thank you to Audrey Tokiwa, always available, approachable, generous, patient, impossibly competent. There has never been a question she hasn't had an answer to, never a late response, never a problem she couldn't solve. Audrey may never know how much encouragement and support she provides to students. iv Table of Contents Abstract................................................................................................................................... ii Dedication..............................................................................................................................iii Acknowledgements................................................................................................................iv Table of Contents.................................................................................................................... v Chapter 1. Introduction .......................................................................................................... 1 1.1 Introduction.................................................................................................................. 1 1.2 Orientalist Discourses: Afghans as “uncivilizable”, “unconquerable” and “ungovernable”...................................................................................................................7 Chapter 2. Methods and Theoretical Perspectives................................................................ 25 2.1 Methods ..................................................................................................................... 25 2.2 Theoretical Perspectives.............................................................................................30 Chapter 3: Historical Context ...............................................................................................39 3.1 The decline of the monarchy and experiments in democracy ...................................40 3.2 The traditional authorities respond: information control............................................47 3.3. Afghanistan in 1973 ..................................................................................................49 Chapter 4: Data and Analysis ...............................................................................................54 4.1 The Helmand Water Treaty.........................................................................................58 4.2 Popular repudiation of the Helmand Water Treaty.....................................................65 4.3 The Helmand Water Treaty in Parliament ................................................................. 69 4.4 Pressure on deputies .................................................................................................. 70 4.8 US involvement..........................................................................................................79 4.9 US attitudes towards Afghans.................................................................................... 87 4.10 Surveillance, vilification, and exclusion of the “Left”............................................ 88 4.11 Balancing US interests .............................................................................................91 4.12 Early neoliberalism in Afghanistan.......................................................................... 96 Chapter 5. Conclusion: What happened to Afghanistan?....................................................102 Glossary...............................................................................................................................108 Bibliography........................................................................................................................109 Appendix: Timeline of Events.............................................................................................112 v Chapter 1. Introduction 1.1 Introduction Since 2001, in the wake of the invasion of Afghanistan by NATO forces which followed the September 11th attacks on the World Trade Center, many of the journalistic and scholarly endeavours to explain Afghanistan's plight involve narratives of a “failed state”, a savage people and an obsession with the burqa that has come to symbolize the horrors of the Taliban regime. These popular narratives serve to categorize the country and its people as uncivilizable, unconquerable and ultimately, ungovernable. Furthermore, they place the blame for the country's dire socio-political conditions squarely on the perceived incompetence and savagery of the Afghans themselves, simplifying, and in some regards, completely erasing a complex history of political dynamism and struggle for democracy, which is presented in this thesis. Afghanistan's recent history, as told in these accounts, follows a simple formula: Communist governments came to power in a series of coups, initially against President Daoud Khan, in 1978. This was followed by a Soviet invasion in 1979 at the request of these communist leaders, who were fought by valiant and patriotic mujaheddin sponsored by Saudi Arabia, Pakistan, and of course, Washington. The Soviet withdrawal in 1989 eventually led to the collapse of communist rule in the country in 1992 which marked the beginning of civil war and warlord rule. The civil war, lasting between 1992 and 1996, brought the Taliban to power for five years before they were ousted by NATO in 2001, by 1 which time, Afghanistan was undeniably a failed state. Since the occupation of the country by NATO forces, there have been three separate elections, signifying some rough sense of democracy, albeit one charged with corruption and of continuing to be a source of Islamic extremism. In this version of the country's past, history begins in 1978, when Daoud's government is ousted in a People's Democratic Party of Afghanistan (PDPA) led coup. What is omitted in this history is the democratic opening before the coups of the late 1970s. While the country's recent history has been portrayed as an endless cycle of chaos and barbarism within popular literature, this thesis seeks to challenge these simplified and essentialist accounts of the country through a careful examination of a time in Afghanistan's history that is largely forgotten. An investigation of official US embassy cables from the early 1970s, through WikiLeaks' PlusD archives, reveals an alternative account of history, in which a fragile, but optimistic attempt at democracy was made by the Afghan people. This democratic opening coincided with Cold War hostilities between the United States and the Soviet Union as well as the beginnings of an aggressive global campaign of neoliberalism implemented by the United States. In 1973, Afghanistan was the site of a conflict between a popular grassroots movement for democracy and sovereignty over the country's natural resources and an early United States sponsored neoliberal campaign to subvert this process through anti- democratic practices. This thesis reconstructs this lost history of US involvement before the Soviet invasion, of neoliberalism in Afghanistan at the beginning of the neoliberal era, of 2 the Afghan people's struggle for democracy decades before NATO, and of the subversion of democracy by the US and the traditional Afghan authorities. This study focuses on a single year, 1973, beginning where the cables are available, and for a single issue, the Helmand Water Treaty. The Helmand Water Treaty is a treaty dividing the water resources of the Helmand Valley between Afghanistan and Iran. Viewed in Afghanistan as an infringement on sovereignty, the treaty