DILEMMAS OF POLITICAL TRANSITION: OTHER RESEARCH REPORTS IN THIS SERIES TOWARDS INSTITUTIONALISATION NO. 1: ELECTORAL SYSTEM REFORM, DEMOCRACY AND STABILITY IN THE SADC OF MULTIPARTY DEMOCRACY IN TANZANIA REGION: A Comparative Analysis by Khabela Matlosa NO 2: FROM MILITARY RULE TO MULTIPARTY DEMOCRACY: Political Reforms and Challenges in Lesotho. Edited by Claude Kabemba No 3: SWAZILAND’S STRUGGLE WITH POLITAL LIBERALISATION. Edited by Claude Kabemba No 4: GENDER AND ELECTIONS IN LESOTHO: Perspectives on the 2002 elections. By Puleng Letuka, Mats’eliso Mapetla, Keiso Matashane-Marite NO 5: GOVERNANCE QUALITY AND GOVERNMENT COMMITMENT TO THE NEPAD AFRICAN PEER REVIEW MECHANISM. Grant Edward Thomas Masterson No 6: ELECTIONS AND DEMOCRACY IN ZAMBIA. Edited by Claude Kabemba ––––––––––––– ❑ ––––––––––––– Published with the kind assistance of NORAD and OSISA ISBN 1-919814-84-1 Edited by Shumbana Karume 9781919 814841 Order from: [email protected] EISA RESEARCH REPORT No 7 EISA RESEARCH REPORT NO 7 i DILEMMAS OF POLITICAL TRANSITION: TOWARDS INSTITUTIONALISATION OF MULTIPARTY DEMOCRACY IN TANZANIA ii EISA RESEARCH REPORT NO 7 EISA RESEARCH REPORT NO 7 iii DILEMMAS OF POLITICAL TRANSITION: TOWARDS INSTITUTIONALISATION OF MULTIPARTY DEMOCRACY IN TANZANIA EDITED BY SHUMBANA KARUME WITH CONTRIBUTIONS BY SHUMBANA KARUME KHABELE MATLOSA WOLE OLALEYE 2004 iv EISA RESEARCH REPORT NO 7 Published by EISA 2nd Floor, The Atrium 41 Stanley Avenue, Auckland Park Johannesburg, South Africa 2006 P O Box 740 Auckland Park 2006 South Africa Tel: 27 11 482 5495 Fax: 27 11 482 6163 Email: [email protected] www.eisa.org.za ISBN: 1-919814-84-1 EISA All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording or otherwise, without the prior permission of EISA. First published 2004 EISA is a non-partisan organisation which seeks to promote democratic principles, free and fair elections, a strong civil society and good governance at all levels of Southern African society. ––––––––––––– ❑ ––––––––––––– Published with the kind assistance of NORAD and OSISA EISA Research Report, No. 7 EISA RESEARCH REPORT NO 7 v CONTENTS List of Acronyms viii Preface xi Executive summary xiii Challenges and recommendations xv Democratic assistance xv Political conflicts xvi Political parties xvi Election administration xvii I. Historical context of political transition (Tanzania Mainland and Zanzibar) 1 Transition to independence 1 Union issues 4 Party merger 5 II. Political conflicts in Zanzibar: A social, economic and political interpretation 7 Introduction 7 The turning point: The unforgettable January 2001 demonstrations 9 Proximate causes of political conflict 12 Contested elections of 1995 and 2000 12 Inter-party conflicts 17 Long-term causes of political conflict 20 Origins of ethnic and racial formations 22 The emergence of political identities 25 Aspects of British exploitation 28 Effects of racial divisions on current politics 29 Dealing with conflict – Muafaka Accords I and II 30 Muafaka I 31 Muafaka II 33 III. Administration of elections - A persistent struggle of institutionalisation and consolidation 36 Introduction 36 Regulation of elections in Mainland Tanzania and Zanzibar 37 The NEC and ZEC: Organisational structures 38 vi EISA RESEARCH REPORT NO 7 Independence of the NEC and ZEC 40 Management and administration of elections: NEC and ZEC assessment 42 Voter registration 43 Voters’ roll 43 Voter education 44 Human resources 44 Voting and counting 45 Conflict management 45 Conclusion 46 IV. The role of donors in Tanzania’s democratisation process 48 Introduction 48 Current levels and scale of donor assistance 55 Democratic assistance 57 Problems of democratic assistance: A beneficiary’s perspective 60 Donor policy changes 64 Donor relations with the NEC and ZEC 68 The 1995 elections 69 The 2000 elections 72 The 2005 elections 73 V. Civil society and democratisation in Tanzania 75 The nature and role of civil society 76 The state of democratic governance and the place of civil society 79 VI. Political parties – The state of Tanzania’s contemporary political landscape 82 Introduction 82 Multipartyism in Tanzania 84 Political parties in democracies 85 Party Concentration 86 Opposition Parties in Parliament 88 Intra-party democracy in CCM 91 The role of Women 92 Party funding 93 EISA RESEARCH REPORT NO 7 vii List of Respondents 95 Political parties 95 NGOs 95 Donors 95 Electoral Management Body 96 Notes 97 References 107 About the Editor 113 About EISA 114 Table 1: 1995 October presidential election results: Official and unofficial results 14 Table 2: 1948 Proportions of Shirazis, Africans and Arabs 23 Table 3: 1961 June election results 29 Table 4: 1963 July election results 29 Table 5: Total net ODA to Tanzania, main donors 52 Table 6: Top ten donors of gross ODA (2001-2002 average) 56 Table 7: UN agencies’ grant aid (US$ 000s) 59 Table 8: Donor Electoral Assistance 1998-2001 65 Table 9: Classification and capacity of NGOs in Tanzania 78 Table 10: Election results in Zanzibar, 1957-1963 83 Table 11: Party composition in the parliament after the 1995 and 2000 elections 88 Table 12: Votes won by parties and party parliamentary seats in 2000 election 89 Table 13: Special seats for women MPs 93 viii EISA RESEARCH REPORT NO 7 LIST OF ACRONYMS AMNUT All Muslim National Union of Tanganyika ANC African National Congress ARO Assistant registration officer ASP Afro-Shirazi Party ASU Afro-Shirazi Union CCM Chama Cha Mapidunzi CHADEMA Chama Cha Demokrasia na Maendeleo CSA (Tanganyika Territory) African Civil Services Association CSO Civil society organisation CUF Civic United Front DAC Development Assistance Committee DFID Department for International Development DG Democratic governance EMB Election management body ESAURP Eastern and Southern African University Research Programme EU European Union FFU Field Force Unit FORD Forum for Restoration of Democracy FPTP First-past-the-post GDP Gross domestic product IDEA International Institute for Democracy and Electoral Assistance IFES International Foundation for Election Systems ILO International Labour Organisation IMF International Monetary Fund IPC Inter-Party Commission KMKM Kikosi Maalum cha Kuzuia Magendo MMP Mixed member proportional MP Member of parliament NCCR-Mageuzi National Convention for Construction and Reform NEC National Electoral Commission NEC National Executive Council NGO Non-governmental organisation NLD National League for Democracy NORAD Norwegian Agency for Development Cooperation NRA National Reconstruction for Alliance ODA Overseas development assistance EISA RESEARCH REPORT NO 7 ix OECD Organisation for Economic Cooperation and Development OSISA Open Society Initiative for Southern Africa PINGO Pastoralists Indigenous People’s Organisation PONA Popular National Party PR Proportional representation PRSP Poverty Reduction Strategy Paper RO Registration officer SA Shirazi Association SADC Southern African Development Community SIDA Swedish International Development Agency TAA Tanganyika African Association TADEA Tanzania Democratic Alliance Party TANU Tanganyika African National Union TAS Tanzania Assistance Strategy TEMCO Tanzania Election Monitoring Committee TGNP Tanzania Gender Networking Programme TLP Tanzania Labour Party TPP Tanzania People’s Party UDM Union for Multiparty Democracy UDP United Democratic Party UK United Kingdom UMMA The Masses/People’s Party UN United Nations UNDP United Nations Development Programme UNESCO United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organisation UNFPA United Nations Population Fund UNICEF United Nations Children’s Fund UNIDO United Nations Industrial Development Organisation UPDP United People’s Democratic Party US United States USAID US Agency for International Development UTP United Tanganyika Party ZAA Zanzibar African Association ZEC Zanzibar Electoral Commission ZNP Zanzibar National Party ZPPP Zanzibar and Pemba People’s Party x EISA RESEARCH REPORT NO 7 EISA RESEARCH REPORT NO 7 xi PREFACE EISA has undertaken various initiatives, which have been aimed at facilitating the nurturing and consolidation of democratic governance in the Southern African Development Community (SADC) region. One such initiative is the first phase of the democratic consolidation research programme. Covering almost all the SADC countries, this research programme focused on the following key issues: • Elections; • Gender and democracy; • Electoral systems; • Electoral administration; • Political parties; • Conflict and elections; and • Democratic assistance. This first phase of the project has generated an enormous stock of knowledge on the dynamics of democratic governance in the region over and above the intricacies of elections per se. It has demonstrated beyond any shadow of a doubt that indeed there is more to democratic governance than just elections and electioneering. In a word, with hindsight, it is abundantly clear to us today that an election, in and of itself, does not necessarily amount to democratic culture and practice. Put somewhat differently, an election is not tantamount to a democracy, in the strictest sense of the term. Various other determinants are critical too including, inter alia, multipartyism, constitutional engineering and the rule of law, gender inclusivity in the governance process, electoral system designs and reforms, transparent and accountable management of national affairs including elections themselves,