WATER USE AND SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT IN SOUTH AFRICA BY DAMIAN CHUKWUDI UKWANDU Submitted in fulfillment of the requirements for the Degree of MASTER OF ARTS IN SOCIAL SCIENCES In the Department of DEVELOPMENT STUDIES at the UNIVERSITY OF SOUTH AFRICA SUPERVISOR: PROF HENNIE SWANEPOEL NOVEMBER 2009 1 DECLARATION I declare that “Water use and sustainable development in South Africa” is my own work and that all the sources that I have used or quoted have been indicated and acknowledged by means of complete references. Mr. DC. UKWANDU 35577959 DATE 2 ABSTRACT This study is non-empirical and is based on the conceptualisations and theoretical foundations that gave rise to the global issue of sustainable development. It also traces the evolution and meaning of sustainable development in the South African socio- cultural context, and shows how the legacies of colonialism and apartheid contributed towards the national policy of sustainable development. This study explains the reasons for the presence (or lack) of sustainable development paradigms in apartheid and post- apartheid South Africa, as well as their implications for the future development of the country as a whole. There is also an analysis of the effects of the liberalisation of the water sector on the citizenry, and how this can disempower millions of poor South Africans. Finally, this study offers solutions for the lack of sustainable use of water in South Africa. Amongst the findings and conclusions are the deleterious effects of employment equity, cut-backs in municipal funding that resulted in the outsourcing of critical services such as water provision, and the deployment of party cadres to local councils. 3 KEY WORDS Sustainable development, sustainability, development and underdevelopment, developed and developing societies, Department of Water Affairs and Forestry, Water Research Commission, Palmer Development Group, marginalisation and exclusion, poverty alleviation, colonial and apartheid legacies, Bantu education, privatisation and commercialisation of water and public utilities, developmental state in Africa and South Africa, development and natural capital, development and moral capital, water and development, water and sanitation, water and poverty alleviation, neoliberalism. 4 DEDICATION This dissertation is dedicated to the loving memory of my late father Mr. Pius Chima Ukwandu (Aguiyi), whose groundwork, love and vision has enabled me to achieve this wonderful milestone in my life. 5 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS My bones will grow weak if i stop to praise the unmerited grace and favour of God in my life, and throughout the trying times of this research. The grace of God has been new every morning and every year of this period, and I solemnly praise and bless the Holy name of Jehovah El Shaddai. I am forever indebted to my supervisor Prof. HJ Swanepoel whose experience, supervision, guidance and meticulous way of doing things have helped me a lot. I am also grateful to the Staff of Development Studies at University of South Africa whose support has been amazing. Finally, i acknowledge the prayers and support of my courageous and wise mother, Mrs Josephine Aziagba ego Ukwandu. The support and encouragement of my brothers Norbert, Ndubuisi, Ebuwa Aloysius, Ekedozie Valentine, Engineer Chijioke Augustine, especially the prayers and encouragement of my father’s only daughter and my only sister nwanyioma Nzubechukwu Augustina. I feel your love and care all the times and it will never be in vain. 6 TABLE OF CONTENTS CHAPTER 1 THE NEED FOR THE STUDY OF WATER USE AND SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT IN SOUTH AFRICA Page 1.1 BACKGROUND TO THE STUDY………………………………………………………………...13 1. 2 VISIONS OF THE FUTURE...…………………………………………………………………….14 1.2.1 Historical examples of self-extinction………………………………………………………………16 1.3 PROBLEM STATEMENT………………………………………………………………………….17 1.3.1 Economic growth and Western society...…………………………………………………...............22 1.3.2 Intellectual foundations of the modern economy..………………………………………………….24 1.4 SIGNIFICANCE OF THE STUDY…………………………………………………………….......30 1.4.1 Research objectives…………………………………………………………………………………36 1.5 PLACE OF THE STUDY WITHIN DEVELOPMENT STUDIES………………………………38 1.6 NATURE OF THE PRESENT UNDERSTANDING OF THE FIELD OF STUDY…..………..39 1.7 CONTRIBUTION OF THE STUDY AND THE NEED FOR RESEARCH…………………….42 1.8 IDENTIFYING THE RESEARCH TOPIC…………………………………………………..........47 1.9 FORMULATING THE RESEARCH PROBLEM………………………………………………..48 1.10 EXPLANATION OF THE RESEARCH DESIGN..……………………………………………..49 CHAPTER 2 DEFINITION OF SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT 2.1 INTRODUCTION…………………………………………………………………………………...50 2.2 VIEWS ON THE RISE OF SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT………………………………...50 2.2.1 A look at the process that led to the establishment of sustainable development………………….54 2.3 MEANING OF SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT……………………………………………...57 7 2.3.1 Examination of a range of sustainable development definitions..……………………………….....64 2.3.2 Sustainable development as a social and political construct..………………………………………67 2.4 MODELS OF SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT………………………………………………..69 2.4.1 Philosophical underpinnings of models of sustainable development….…………………………...69 2.4.2 The treadmill model of sustainable development…………………………………………………...73 2.4.3 The weak model of sustainable development………………………………………………………75 2.4.4 The strong model of sustainable development……………………………………………………..79 2.4.5 The ideal model of sustainable development……………………………………………………….80 2.5 ECONOMIC GROWTH AS A PREREQUISITE FOR SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT...82 2.6 THE MEANING OF DEVELOPMENT…………………………………………………………...84 2. 6.1 Development: a qualitative rather than quantitative construct…………………………………….90 2.6.2 Development requires ultimate ends to be appropriately conceived..……………………………..94 2.6.3 The ultimate end of development…………………………………………………..……………...96 2.6.4 Development requires ultimate end to be suitably updated..………………………………………98 2.6.5 Establishing a development-based rule of right-action……..……………………………………..101 2.7 MEANING OF SUSTAINABILITY………………………………………………………………103 2.7.1 Sustainability as a development prerequisite………………………………………………………106 2.7.2 Sustainability and the moral principle of intergenerational equity………………………………...108 2.8 LIMITATIONS AS A DEVELOPMENT-BASED RULE OF RIGHT ACTION……………...110 2.9 DEVELOPMENT AND NATURAL CAPITAL…………………………………………………113 2.10 DEVELOPMENT AND MORAL CAPITAL…………………………………………………..116 2.11 CONCLUSION……………………………………………………………………………………128 CHAPTER 3 THE LINK BETWEEN DEVELOPMENT AND SUSTAINABILITY 3.1 Introduction…........………………………………………………………………………………….129 3.2 RECONCILING SUSTAINABILITY AND DEVELOPMENT………………………………..129 8 3.3 DIMENSIONS OF SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT………………………………………...138 3.3.1 Economic dimension………………………………………………………………………………138 3.3.2 Environmental dimension …………………………………………………………………………140 3.3.3 Technological dimension…………………………………………………………………………..142 3.3.4 Human dimension………………………………………………………………………………….143 3.4 SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT: A CRITIQUE……………………………………………..145 3.5 DEVELOPMENTAL STATE……………………………………………………………………..156 3.5.1 Introduction………………………………………………………………………………………..156 3.6 MEANING OF THE DEVELOPMENTAL STATE……..……………………………………...158 3.7 AFRICA AND THE CONCEPT OF THE DEVELOPMENTAL STATE.………………….....164 3.8 SOUTH AFRICA AND THE CONCEPT OF THE DEVELOPMENTAL STATE……….…..167 3.9 DEFENDING THE POLICY OF THE DEVELOPMENTAL STATE IN SOUTH AFRICA..173 3.10 CONCLUSION……………………………………………………………………………………176 CHAPTER 4 SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT IN SOUTH AFRICA 4.1 INTRODUCTION…………………………………………………………………………………177 4.2 THE INFLUENCE OF THE COLONIAL AND APARTHEID PAST ON SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT IN SOUTH AFRICA……………………………………………………………..177 4.3 THE NEED FOR A NEW PARADIGM IN THE DISTRIBUTION OF RESOURCES IN SOUTH AFRICA……………………………………………………………………………………….183 4.4 ENTRENCHMENT OF BRITISH COLONIAL POWER IN SOUTH AFRICA……………..188 4.4.1 The enforcement of colonial power and the advent of territorialism in South Africa….…………192 4.5 THE RISE AND CONSOLIDATION OF APARTHEID…..…………………………………...198 4.5.1 The costs of apartheid for sustainable development in South Africa..………………………….....202 4.5.2 Influx control and sustainable development in South Africa……………………………………...204 4.5.3 Bantu education and its impact on sustainable development in South Africa…………………….205 4.5.4 Industrialisation policy and sustainable development in South Africa……………………………207 4.5.5 Defence costs and their impact on sustainable development in South Africa..……………………208 9 4.5.6 The cumulative impact of apartheid on sustainable development in South Africa………………..211 4.6 SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT IN POST-APARTHEID SOUTH AFRICA……………...214 4.7 NEOLIBERALISM, WATER AND SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT ……………………..222 4.8 CONCLUSION…………………………………………………………………………………….233 CHAPTER 5 SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT IN SOUTH AFRICA’S WATER SECTOR 5.1 INTRODUCTION…………………………………………………………………………………234 5.2 GLOBAL STATE OF WATER …………………………………………………………………..234 5.2.1 Global fresh water…………………………………………………………………………………235 5.2.2 Uses of fresh water………………………………………………………………………………...236 5.3 STATE OF WATER IN AFRICA………………………………………………………………...237 5.3.1 Rainfall variability in Africa………………………………………………………………………240 5.3.2 Groundwater resources in Africa…………………………………………………………………241 5.3.3 Growing water scarcity in Africa…………………………………………………………………242 5.3.4 Climate variability in Africa……………………………………………………………………….243 5.3.5 Natural risks to water in Africa……………………………………………………………………246 5.4 THE DEVELOPMENT ENVIRONMENT IN AFRICA……………………………………….247 5.4.1 Overarching issues………………………………………………………………………………..247 5.4.2 Opportunities