CHAPTER EIGHT A TURNING POINT IN THE HISTORY OF THE MUSLIM STATE (Apropos of the Kitab al-Sahaba of Ibn al-Muqaffa <) It is generally admitted that the transition of the caliphate from the Umayyads to the Abbasids (750 A.D.), as well as the shifting of its seat from Syria to Iraq, marked a change in the whole structure ofthe Muslim state: an essentially secular "Kingdom", it is believed, was replaced by the "Imamat", which emphasized the religious character of the highest office of the state. A bureaucratic system of administration took the place of a haphazardly governing aristocra­ cy, and an army composed of mercenaries came instead of one con­ sisting mainly of tribesmen. The national preponderance of the Arabs was superseded by the growing influence of other nationalities, in particular the Iranian, which is believed to have been mainly responsible for the new order of things. However, the changes that took place in the inner constitution of the Muslim state at that time were much more complicated than is generally assumed. There are many questions which still await a satisfactory solution. What were the limits of the caliph's religious authority in theory and practice? How much was Muslim law, which was the law ofthe state, affected by it? By what means was the ruler able to control the army, after the old idea of a caste of warriors, exploiting for their common interest the misera contribuens plebs (the mass of people paying taxes) was abandoned'? What was the 1 It has often occurred to the present writer that the fabric of the original Muslim state, as it was formed approximately in cOmar's time, bore a strange resemblance to the various strata of the ideal state conceived by Plato in his Politeia. The Companions (a$!z,iib), or rather the small circle of noble Meccans, who, or whose parents, had been closely connected with the Prophet, correspond to the Rulers (a,chontes) or the Perfect Guardians (phylakes panteleis).The mass oftribesmen, who, by leaving Arabia, became recognized as the warriors of Allah (muhajiyunfi sabil Alliih) and were registered in fixed dlwans, resemble Plato's "Guardians" (phylakes), while the rest ofthe popula­ tion, the non-Muslims, who contributed the means of subsistence to the former two classes, may be compared with Plato's Employers and Maintainers (misthodotai, t,opheis). The designation of the non-Muslims as miiddat al-mus­ limin, Helpers of the Muslims (Yal).ya b. Adam, K. al-Kharaj, p. 27 and else- 150 ISLAMIC RELIGIOUS AND POLITICAL INSTITUTIONS origin of the new system of administration? Were the people intro­ ducing it themselves aware of the changes they effected? Since the early Abbasid period saw the formation and formulation of Islamic law, a satisfactory answer to the questions raised above may further the understanding of an important phase of Islamic religious and constitutional history. Fortunately, we possess a document of unique value from the first days of the Abbasid caliphate which shows us this regime as witnessed by a shrewd observer, the Kitdb al-Sahdba of Ibn al­ Muqaffa.! Every sentence in this remarkable memorandum on government bears the mark of strict authenticity and acute observa­ tion. Ibn al-Muqaffa< was a man of the type and calibre of Ibn Khaldiin and Niccolo Machiavelli, who, although gifted with deep insight in political matters, were barred from occupying leading positions in active politics during the most creative periods of their lives. This personaltragedywas, in the case of Ibn al-Muqaffa", enhanced by his being a Mawla, a non-Arab. Neither his superior knowledge of Arabic and his general erudition, nor his great wealth or his intimate relations with the highest Arab aristocracy, could save him from a most cruel death, perpetrated, with the connivance of the caliph, by an amir who was unable to retaliate Ibn al-Muqaffa"s witty insults except by physical brutality.P Although he passed the greater where) is strangely reminiscent of the terms used by Plato. Two further instances of resemblance are the facts that the Muslims used to live together in special camp-cities, separated from the rest of the population, and that a serious attempt was made at preventing them from holding or cultivating land. As is well known, Plato's Guardians were supposed to live in closed communities and not to possess private property. It is needless to say that the Muslim state came into being without any connection with Plato's theories. The nearest historical parallel was the Sassanid empire, where the nobility, the gentry, the priests, the scribes and all other "Servants of the King" were exempted from the poll-tax. The Sassanid poll tax was graded according to the capacity of the tax-payer and so was the jizya paid by non­ Muslims to the caliph's treasurer. (Cf. Noldeke, Geschichte der Perser, etc., 1879, pp. 246-7). 1 Included in Abu Tahir Taifur's (died 280/893) Anthology, the Kitab al­ Manthu'Y wal-Man!um, manuscripts of which have been preserved at the British Museum and at Cairo, cf. Brockelmann, Geschichte der Arabischen Literatur, vol. I, pp. 138 and 151, Supplement I, pp. 210 and 236. Published by M. Kurd cAli in his Rasa'il al-Bulagha', pp. 120-131. The title ("On the Entourage of the Caliph") refers to the passage on pp. 127-129, which will be discussed later on. 2 Both the historical accounts and the dirges composed on Ibn al-Muqaffa c after his death-which remained unrevenged-show that his deplorable end.