International Journal of Languages, Literature and Linguistics, Vol. 2, No. 1, March 2016 Medium and Mediators: Tracing Collaborative Authorship Jesse C. Newman Cowboy Bebop is the definitive example of the porting of Abstract—This paper investigates how stylistic decisions of Bebop Jazz procedures to film and animated formats. Genre is authors can be tracked in the context of the inherently emphasised, the interactions of the creatives are spontaneous collaborative mediums of film, television and animated serials. and de-hierarchised, even the plot itself, the overarching In order to measure and evaluate authorial input, dual sets of cases studies in credit taking, inspiration and collaboration are characteristic of serial entertainment, is given a backseat role explored and assessed. The jealously credited script writing and to structural and aesthetic objectives and considerations. As in concept development of Aaron Sorkin is compared with the Bebop Jazz, the viewer is forced to read the work closely, or more reflexive and pluralistic credit of Japanese animated series risk missing the key concepts and narrative subtleties. authored by ‘Sunrise’ creative staff under a shared nom de plume of ‘Hajime Yatate’. B. A Ghost out of the Corporate Machine The central figure in the Bebop project is unquestionably Index Terms—Anime, authorship, collaboration, Shinchiro the director, Shinchiro Watanabe. With his career proper Watanabe, Sorkin. starting only a few years prior on 1994‟s action animated special „Macross Plus‟, Watanabe‟s first project as full director was to be „Cowboy Bebop‟ [3]. The „Macross‟ entry I. INTRODUCTION he codirected was a jetfighter space opera populated with The question can be raised, in the case of collaborative arts, stock characters put forward without apparent irony. As an as to whether authorship can be located in the text [1]. uncredited reimagining of the 1986 Tom Cruise vehicle „Top Arguably stylistic decisions can be tracked and made visible Gun‟ this loosely connected instalment in the already beyond commercial drives and repetitive genre conventions, successful „Macross‟ franchise was an experiment in high and then resituated in the individual and collaborative event. budget animated action sequences in a Hollywood vein, This paper will attempt to locate authorial voice, projection of aimed at direct VHS sales [4]. pet narratives and stylistic trends between two bodies of work. For Watanabe, being given a secondary „co-directed‟ credit An investigation will be conducted into the film and television to the original „Macross‟ series director Shōji Kawamori, productions that list Aaron Sorkin as a writer and into the seems to have provided the skeleton of a team for his 1998 animated series „Cowboy Bebop‟, in its context in the definitive debut in „Bebop‟. The customised musical directorial oeuvre of Shinchiro Watanabe. The argument will compositions of Yoko Kanno (with key vocals from Mai be made that authorial actions can be traced. This tracing can Yamane) and the scripting of Kieko Nobumoto, Watanabe‟s be achieved in the case of Cowboy Bebop by locating a text in later collaborators, are etched on the Bandai Visual team of relation to surrounding works sharing common collaborative Macross. These key creatives would form the engine and creatives. Alternatively it will be demonstrated in the case of inspiration of the Bebop project two years later. Watanabe, Sorkin‟s early work by analyses of text‟s forms and structure. Kanno and Nobumoto clearly enjoyed collaborating but Authorship will be investigated as an emergent dynamic, as chafed at their restrictions in corporatized genre production input can fluctuate as an authorial style takes shape. [3]. The combination in „Macross Plus‟ of expensive international market oriented action sequences with inter II. COWBOY BEBOP character driven conflict were the foundation of Watanabe‟s bankability as a director and foreshadow his later works A. Bebop Jazz Creations without engaging in his trademark referential genre fest [5]. The creative method in the conception of characters, Originally slated by corporate decision makers as a future settings, music, narrative and performance in the text is tied to merchandising money spinner, Watanabe was given carte that of Bebop Jazz, in which ad-libbing sessions between blanche by Bandai‟s toy making arm to make whatever performers are used to excavate and interrogate melody content he wished so long as it prominently featured a structures and conventions [2]. This procedure in Jazz was spacecraft. Using this freedom to restructure production to developed to counter mainstreaming of Jazz for dance halls. creatively utilise his entire team resulted in unusual, author The music was intentionally produced as content heavy to heavy design and narrative but also risked the production‟s force reflective listening and engage the listener in artform as viability [3]. artform. The team behind Cowboy Bebop had similar As the Bebop concept development unfolded, it became concerns and goals [3]. clear that this series would not primarily be designed to fuel toy sales. The Macross franchise had been a robot Manuscript received January 20, 2015; revised March 12, 2016. merchandising bonanza, but the Bebop artwork and settings J. C. Newman is with the Department of Media, Music, Communication and Cultural Studies at Macquarie University, Sydney, NSW 2109 Australia were clearly too whimsical and arthouse to fuel sales of the (e-mail: [email protected]). „Mecha‟ merchandising Bandai had built into their production doi: 10.18178/ijlll.2016.2.1.61 18 International Journal of Languages, Literature and Linguistics, Vol. 2, No. 1, March 2016 model. Following the withdrawal of support of Bandai‟s toy of work produced by that team but also used by Sunrise for a manufacturing arm it was only the intervention of the number of its projects. „Cowboy Bebop‟ stands alone in both animation arm of the corporation that allowed production to its creative mode of production and correspondingly its commence. Essentially this was a vote of confidence for the resulting form. Character designer Toshihiro Kawamoto was creative team of Watanabe as director, Yoko Kanno as sent back by the executive creative team for constant composer and Kieko Nobumoto as head writer, the same team redesigns as the creative process was unhooked from the that had been so commercially successful with „Macross Plus‟ linear production procedure of most studio endeavors [10]. [6]. Hajime Yattate did not start with a script, or even a writer and director dreaming up a concept together and then asking the C. Hajime Yattate and Shared Authorship team to realise it. Rather creation took place in a dialogue, The staff of the Bebop production company „Sunrise‟, took with visual, musical and directorial conversations interacting a group credit for series creator, as authorship of an original in the creation of a unique textual world. series is ambiguous across the spectrum of key creatives One of its key characters, the androgynous preteen (Woodmansee, 1994). A collective credit under a „nom de computer hacker „Edward‟ was based on the production antics plume‟ allows the staff to build a creative identity within the and physicality of series composer Yoko Kanno. A corgi was context of an entertainment giant as big as the production included due to the illustrator, Kawamoto‟s ownership of a house, in this case Bandai Visual. This group credit, used for a dog of that breed [11]. Settings were created to match music number of other „Sunrise‟ produced works was „Hajime composed by Yoko Kanno‟s production band „The Seatbelts‟ Yatate‟, adapted from a quote of the poet Matsuo Basho, whom at other points in the production created music to match about his own fears of risk taking in art [7]. plot points pushed by Watanbe or Nobumoto or adlibbed in The distinct character of „Hajime Yatate‟s‟ „Bebop‟, can be response to graphics or discussions [10]. traced through the dialectic between music, structure and its The setting of the series was also created using this divergence in form from competitor-produced content. Other interactive flair in fusing space punk tropes and references to texts of the period are more illustrative in their creation. As Kubrick and Ridley Scott films. Disjunctive planetscapes mass produced corporate content, much of the anime rotate as settings for episodes resembling 1980‟s New York, production of the 90s were designed to sell lines of toys, 1970‟s Hong Kong and 1990‟s Tokyo, these open up for maintain ratings indefinitely and to plugin to pre-existing reference the visual and narrative bank of the cinema of these comic book audiences [7]. periods and locations with which the creative team were keen These works are dominated by soap operatic endeavours to experiment. The intertextual and fluid nature of the with belaboured conflicts against aliens and rivalries between „Bebop‟ world avoids closing it off to plot convention but hyper masculinised male forms [8]. „Tekkaman Blade‟, makes the experience of watching bewildering, with viewers „Robotech‟, „Macross‟ and „The Vision of Escaflowne‟ are unsure where the author wishes to place emphasis or whether essentially pot boiler space operas with minimal introspection the references are genre work or homage or both. and predictable plot points of military and individual failure Analogue television programming occupies this mishmash followed by eventual victory [9]. The music, dialogue and art space alongside casual interplanetary travel. Newstainment are purely illustrative of their pre-established creative and bounty hunting gameshows occupy the faked media space trajectories, as such each component is produced and mock the camper aspects of costuming and genre excess chronologically and independently and cannot feed on the in the series. A hyper inflated fictional currency detaches other organically. The giant robot battles that dominate the value from gambling debts, bounty hunters and food prices. In plots are centre stage, with violence, gore and explosive Cowboy Bebop a meal in a restaurant can outstrip the cost of action overwhelming other aspects of the text.