Policing global hubs – A study of the Norwegian airport and maritime port security environments Martin Nøkleberg Department of Criminology and Sociology of Law University of Oslo January 2021 © Martin Nøkleberg, 2021 Series of dissertations submitted to the Faculty of Law, University of Oslo No. 168 ISSN 1890-2375 All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced or transmitted, in any form or by any means, without permission. Cover: Hanne Baadsgaard Utigard. Print production: Reprosentralen, University of Oslo. Summary The topic of this dissertation is the policing of global hubs, and it is particularly concerned with the security governance arrangements found at Norwegian airports and maritime ports. Employing a mixed-method design, the dissertation draws on extensive empirically grounded research from case studies of Oslo airport, the port of Stavanger and the port of Kristiansand, which are three important hubs in the Norwegian infrastructure for facilitating flows of people and things. This dissertation sets out to explore collaborative and network structures among policing agencies as a way to approach complex matters relating to security, and the organizations’ experience of security projects in their everyday life, with particular emphasis on their perceptions of different mentalities, logics and interests and efforts to reconcile them. By combining perspectives on collaboration, experiences of security practices and guiding mentalities, this study seeks to contribute by providing new empirical and conceptual insights into plural policing and security governance from the Nordic context. More importantly, the dissertation aims to develop and advance our thinking on the policing of global hubs – which are distinct and unique institutional environments that have yet to receive proper criminological attention. Thus, to make this possible, the overarching research question that this dissertation sets out to address is How do agencies producing and delivering security and policing services in global hubs experience and perceive their collaborative relations and everyday practices when dealing with matters of security? The dissertation is made up of four articles, and although the articles can be read separately as independent contributions to the literature on plural policing and security governance, they also connect in certain ways and, taken together, shed light on the overall research objective of this dissertation, and contribute to expand and advance the current literature. Articles one and two are concerned with examining and mapping collaborative relations, and make clear that the notion of public-private is crucial to the way agencies view themselves in comparison with others, and to how they seek to position themselves in collaborative efforts by referring to this divide. The mapping of relations reveals a distinct social structure and highlights how power is connected to the relational position of agencies within security networks. The third and fourth articles take a broader approach to unpacking security governance by giving attention to agencies’ experiences and understanding of policing and security practice in global hubs. The third article underlines how the dimension of “everyday practices” is important for making sense of the way in which agencies respond to exceptionality and develop strategies to cope i with it. The last article shows how policing and security agencies are affected by, and seek to adapt to, the demand for efficiency and speed that is intrinsic to the commercial system prevailing in global hubs. ii Acknowledgments Writing this dissertation has been an incredible journey with many highs and (some) lows, and along the way I have received support from a great number of people, to whom I would like to express my sincere gratitude. First of all, I would like to thank my main supervisors, Katja Franko and Helene Oppen Ingebrigtsen Gundhus, for your thoughtful and valuable guidance, and the continuous belief you have shown in me and my project. I really appreciate all the discussions we have had about theoretical perspectives and concepts and the extensive data I gathered, these conversations were particularly helpful to tease out the way forward when I sometimes felt “lost”. You have also offered a lot of encouragement, inspiration, and moral support over the years, for which I am forever grateful. All your insightful, constructive and critical comments and suggestions on draft papers and chapters have been invaluable and challenged me to push forward the established academic boundaries. I would also like to express my gratitude to my co-supervisor Jan Froestad from the University of Bergen, for believing in me all those years ago, when I was a master’s student with an interest in security, policing and governance. Your initial encouragement and support helped lead me to embark on this PhD project. I appreciate the fact you introduced me to a number of your colleagues and invited me to contribute to a book chapter. I am grateful that you have always had time to read and discuss my work, and share your extensive empirical and theoretical knowledge, which has shaped my thinking and the analytical lenses through which I have analyzed the empirical material in this dissertation. Special thanks to all the interviewees and survey respondents who took the time to participate in this project for sharing their knowledge, expertise, experiences and reflections on different aspects of airport and maritime port policing and security. The research would not have been possible without your contributions. Thanks to Adam Crawford who provided insightful and constructive feedback on the project at the midway assessment. I am also indebted to various research assistants for their help with transcribing a good part of the interviews. I would like to thank Daphne Day for her excellent language editing of the articles and this extended introduction. Thanks to my PhD colleagues (and post-docs) at the Department of Criminology and Sociology of Law – your company and all the conversations, discussions and laughter we have shared over iii the years have been invaluable and made the rather lonesome life of a PhD student much more enjoyable. Thanks too, to the people who read and commented on draft papers. Dorina Damsa, you are truly a good friend and one of a kind, and I appreciate all the support you have given me. “Extracurricular activities” have helped keep me sane, especially all the squash matches I have played against Frode Lyshaugen, John Todd-Kvam and the other members of the IKRS squash group. Hopefully, there will be many more soon. Finally, I would like to thank my family and friends for their support while I was working on the dissertation. Martin Nøkleberg, January 2021, Oslo. iv Table of Contents Summary ................................................................................................................................................. i Acknowledgments ................................................................................................................................. iii List of tables ......................................................................................................................................... vii Abbreviations ...................................................................................................................................... viii PART ONE ............................................................................................................................................ ix 1. Introduction ................................................................................................................................... 1 1.1 Setting the scene: Global hubs, economy and security risks ......................................................... 1 1.2 Aviation and maritime security, plural policing and the Nordic context ...................................... 5 1.3 Research objective: Unpacking the policing of global hubs ......................................................... 9 1.4 Outline ......................................................................................................................................... 11 2. Empirical context – Pluralized policing, regulations, and Norwegian global hubs ............... 14 2.1 The historical development of (plural) policing in Norway ........................................................ 15 2.2 Airport and maritime port security studies .................................................................................. 21 2.3 Regulatory regimes of global hubs: International and national aviation and maritime ............... 24 2.4 Norwegian global hubs – pluralized responses to security issues ............................................... 30 2.5 Concluding remarks .................................................................................................................... 42 3. Theoretical perspectives – Security governance, network governance and collaboration ... 43 3.1 Conceptualizing security – criminology and International relations ........................................... 43 3.2 The analytical perspectives of security governance and policing seen through the everyday .... 49 3.3 The public–private divide: Differing interests............................................................................. 64 3.4 Network governance, security networks and collaboration ......................................................... 67 3.5 Concluding