Under Two Flags: The Development of NGOs in Libya Submitted by Mabroka El Sahli to The University of Exeter as a thesis for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy in Arab and Islamic Studies January 2015 This thesis is available for Library use on the understanding that it is copy right material and that no quotation from the thesis may be published without proper acknowledgement. I certify that all material in this thesis which is not my own work has been identified and that no material is included for which a degree has previously been conferred upon me. Mabroka El Sahli . 1 Abstract This thesis presents a case study of civil society in Libya, examining the development of civil society associations from 1969 up to the present time. The study argues for, and utilises, a broad definition of the term “civil society” that includes traditional associations. The World Bank definition of civil society provides the basis of the analysis. The latter is presented via a contrasting assessment of Libyan NGOs under two different political regimes. The relationship with the state is shown to have been the primary factor shaping their form and character whether in terms of numbers or activities. State control and the legal framework governing civil society were the primary factors that limited the autonomy of these associations, under the Qadhafi regime. With the sudden absence of the state during and after the 2011 uprising, NGO numbers mushroomed. Associations took the initiative to establish themselves through collective action. The study shows how quickly and effectively NGOs came together to confront the regime and to occupy the public space left by the displaced government in order to provide essential services. The NGOs were able to provide the framework to prevent the collapse of society, which was an indication of the latent strength, effectiveness and importance of civil society in Libya, despite the ongoing challenges faced due to the collapse of the Qadhafi state apparatus. The thesis findings challenge the prevalent assumption that civil society, as commonly defined, has little strength in the Arab world. The broader definition of civil society used in this study (in accordance with the World Bank definition of the term) helps to provide a wide understanding of civil society and is thereby shown to have useful applications in various contexts, outside the presumed European norm. The thesis uses a range of qualitative research methodologies including interviews, documentary data and observation. 2 Notice Arabic Romanization Table Arabic Letters of the Alphabet Initial Medial Final Alone Romanization omit ا ﺎ ﺎ ا B ﺏ ﺐ ﺒ ﺑ T ﺕ ﺖ ﺘ ﺗ Th ﺙ ﺚ ﺜ ﺛ J ﺝ ﺞ ﺠ ﺟ + ﺡ ﺢ ﺤ ﺣ Kh ﺥ ﺦ ﺨ ﺧ D ﺩ ﺪ ﺪ ﺩ Dh ﺫ ﺬ ﺬ ﺫ R ﺭ ﺮ ﺮ ﺭ z ﺯ ﺰ ﺰ ﺯ S ﺱ ﺲ ﺴ ﺳ Sh ﺵ ﺶ ﺸ ﺷ ~ ﺹ ﺺ ﺼ ﺻ # ﺽ ﺾ ﻀ ﺿ % ﻁ ﻂ ﻄ ﻃ & ﻅ ﻆ ﻈ ﻇ (ayn)‘ ﻉ ﻊ ﻌ ﻋ gh ﻍ ﻎ ﻐ ﻏ F ﻑ ﻒ ﻔ ﻓ Q ﻕ ﻖ ﻘ ﻗ K ﻙ ﻚ ﻜ ﻛ L ﻝ ﻞ ﻠ ﻟ M ﻡ ﻢ ﻤ ﻣ N ﻥ ﻦ ﻨ ﻧ H ة ، ه ﺔ،ﻪ ﻬ ﻫ W ﻭ ﻮ ﻮ ﻭ Y ﻯ ﻰ ﻴ ﻳ Vowels and Diphthongs آ َ ى Ā َ ا a َ Aw و Ā َ ى u َ Ay َ ي Ū َ و i َ 3 Acknowledgements I am indebted to everyone who supported and assisted me in different ways in making this thesis possible. It is a delight to take this opportunity to thank all of them and extend my gratitude and respect. It is the most difficult part for me. I have had the advantage of being under the supervision of Professor Tim Niblock, particularly as I am one of his last students and thus have been given the gift of his experience. I extend my thanks and gratitude to him for his supervision and his in-depth feedback which helped me to think more critically and to view my work from different perspectives. I thank him also for his good advice regarding the organisation of the thesis. I take this opportunity to say a big thank you to my small family who have suffered for these years of my study, from the worry and inconvenience I put them through. I apologise profusely to my children Hesham, Haytham and Hams who were always patient in their wait for mum to finish her unfinished study I thank my husband Mahmoud, for his patience in coping with the distance between himself and his children for four years and for his financial support. I am sorry that I left Hams for two years and I hope she will forgive me when she understands why. I am sorry for Hatyham because I could share with him his joy for football as did all his friends parents. I am sorry that Hesham could not continue to practice his favourite sport, swimming, because I did not have the time to support him. My children have inspired me to give them the best role model I can offer and to teach them how to deal with life’s challenges and never to give up. I take this opportunity to thank my friend Professor Ghada Ageel, who believed in me more than myself sometimes, gave me confidence, and trusted my capacity to chase and complete this thesis and assisted me in doing so. I will never forget her voice encouraging me to pursue my studies rather than giving up. I express my sincere thanks and appreciation to my wonderful friend Dr. Mabroka al- Warfeli who suggested the topic ‘civil society in Libya’, when I came to the University of Exeter; my proposal was the Turkish regional role, but she advised me to write about a topical issue in Libya and it was agreed that I would write about civil society in Libya. She spared no effort to discuss my ideas with me, which had a significant impact. 4 Very exceptional thanks go to the friends I met in Exeter but whose friendship has endured. I express my heartfelt thanks to: Dr. Nida Abu awwad, Konstantina Kladi, Dr. Mojdeh Jamnia and Jill Anderson; they offered me moral support and made Exeter a better place in which to live, and their insistence that I was not to give up. They helped me to overcome the difficulties that I faced in my life in Exeter. A special thank you and appreciation goes to Dr. Suaad Genem-George for the support during the first stage of my study and encouraged me during my first year to continue my studies. Thanks are also due to INTO, especially John Straker and his team who provided me with unlimited language support. I am also grateful to the accommodation office and the international student office at the University of Exeter for their support and understanding. I would like to thank my family in Libya for their support, their continuous prayers and their love: my brothers Khalīl, Sulaymān, Gharīb and Jumm‘a and their families - all my lovely nephews and nieces. My thanks go especially to my sisters Sharīfa, Fātimah and ’Ahlām who did not complete their education because they married at a very early age; they consider my success as their success and achievement. My extended thanks also go to all my neighbours from different countries and cultures who embraced my children and I at the beginning of our lives in Exeter. I thank Dr Ruba Salih- my former mentor, who helped me to overcome the difficulties that I faced in the beginning and her understanding of my situation as a single mother. In addition, I would like to extend my thanks to Helen Stafford who helped with proof- reading my thesis. 5 Lastly and with sadness I would like to say that this work is dedicated to the soul of my father, Abd al-Salām and my mother ‘A’isha, to whom I owe every success in life. My mother was a responsible and fair lady; I missed her in my first year at the university. My father passed away only two months after I came to the UK and it is of great regret that I was not with him. He endorsed me as a female and gave me confidence and inspiration. His voice, and wisdom were always with me and his support was unwavering. He helped me to keep working and to face the challenges without being held back by the frustration caused by others. Had he been with me today he would have been very proud. 6 Contents Abstract ............................................................................................................................. 2 Notice ............................................................................................................................... 3 Acknowledgements .......................................................................................................... 4 Contents ............................................................................................................................ 7 List of Figures ................................................................................................................. 15 Glossary and Abbreviations ........................................................................................... 16 Chapter One: Introduction: Questions and Aims of the Thesis ............................... 17 1.1 Premises .................................................................................................................... 17 1.2 The Research Question and Conceptual Framework ................................................. 18 1.3 Defining NGOs and Conceptualising their Role ....................................................... 21 1.4 The Interest of the Topic .......................................................................................... 25 1.5 The Significance of this Study .................................................................................. 27 1.6 Research Methodology ............................................................................................. 27 1.6.1 Interviews .......................................................................................................... 28 1.6.2 Documentation .................................................................................................