RE-ANIMATING ANDEAN WORLDS: KAMAYOQ, THE POLITICS OF ‘CULTURALLY APPROPRIATE’ KNOWLEDGE EXTENSION, AND ETHNODEVELOPMENT IN THE PERUVIAN ANDES by Julian Sebastian Yates B.A., University of Manchester, 2004 M.A., University of Victoria, 2009 A THESIS SUBMITTED IN PARTIAL FULFILLMENT OF THE REQUIREMENTS FOR THE DEGREE OF DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY in THE FACULTY OF GRADUATE AND POSTDOCTORAL STUDIES (Geography) THE UNIVERSITY OF BRITISH COLUMBIA (Vancouver) April 2015 © Julian Sebastian Yates 2015 ABSTRACT This dissertation positions the kamayoq of the Southern Peruvian Andes (Sierra Sur) within the context of globalized ethnodevelopment networks. Contemporary kamayoq are indigenous, community-based specialists who act as “transcultural bridges” within a “culturally appropriate” methodology of campesino-a-campesino (farmer-to-farmer) knowledge transfer. Building on the results of a follow-the-thing methodology (deployed across fourteen months of multi-sited ethnographic fieldwork), I use the case of the kamayoq to develop a critique of ethnodevelopment – a notion that encapsulates how development programmes put culture and cultural groups to work in order both to incorporate them within broader development trajectories, and to protect them from some of the negative effects of such participation. I draw on – and contribute to – relevant debates in political economy, political ecology, development studies, and Andean studies to make a series of empirical and theoretical contributions. I conduct a Polanyian historical analysis of how the kamayoq have supported economic integration across different modes of production and forms of governance (since the fifteenth century). I develop a contemporary analysis of how ethnodevelopment programmes construct the kamayoq as ‘ethnic experts’ and ethno-entrepreneurial subjects within a new rural economy of Peru, thereby transforming a dynamic form of Andean learning-by-doing (aprender hacer) – as embodied by the kamayoq – into a form of ‘ethnic expertise’ on display (saber hacer). The recent government programme of certifying the competencies of the kamayoq according to national standards further acts as a kind of Foucauldian ethnodevelopmental dispositif, as it conducts the conduct of the kamayoq. Reflecting on these findings, I explore whether the kamayoq contribute to a uniquely Andean form of economic organization (‘Andinidad’; characterized by reciprocity, collectiveness, and communal ownership); I position this discussion in relation to Peruvian scholarship on decolonizing development. Finally, I develop a political economy-inflected ‘intimate ecology’ of the role the kamayoq play in connecting alpaca genetic reproduction networks in the Andes, thereby entering debates around multiple ontologies and Andean living worlds. I present the notion of ii a ‘vital economy’ as a way of understanding the links between economic production, genetic reproduction, and the ‘re-wilding’ of alpacas in order to maintain species vitality. iii PREFACE This dissertation is an original intellectual product of the author, Julian S. Yates. The field research was covered under UBC Behavioural Research Ethics Board certificate number H11- 01029. The cartographic maps included in the introduction were compiled by the UBC geography department’s cartography, Eric Leinberger, using additional data provided by the author. While the following publications emerged from the work presented in this dissertation, none have been reproduced verbatim here: Yates, J. S., & Bakker, K. (2014). Debating the 'post-neoliberal turn' in Latin America. Progress in Human Geography, 38(1), 62 - 91. (This work does not appear directly in the thesis, but it informs the theoretical framework and some of the concluding remarks.) Yates, J. S. (2014). Historicizing 'ethnodevelopment': Kamayoq and political-economic integration across governance regimes in the Peruvian Andes. Journal of Historical Geography, 46, 53-65. doi:10.1016/j.jhg.2014.08.001 (This work appears in chapters three and four.) Yates, J. S. (2014). “No-one is a prophet in his own land”: Kamayoq, the politics of agricultural knowledge extension, and territorial development in the Peruvian Andes Submitted. (This work appears in chapter four.) iv TABLE OF CONTENTS Abstract .................................................................................................................................................... ii Preface ..................................................................................................................................................... iv Table of contents ...................................................................................................................................... v List of tables .......................................................................................................................................... viii List of figures .......................................................................................................................................... ix List of acronyms ...................................................................................................................................... xi Glossary ................................................................................................................................................ xiii Acknowledgements ............................................................................................................................... xvi One Aprender hacer in the Andes......................................................................................................... 1 The spaces, places, and methods of a networked ethnography of the kamayoq .......................... 6 The dystopian present of the Sierra Sur? ................................................................................... 12 Ethnodevelopment: critiquing the politics of ‘culturally appropriate’ development in the Andes ............................................................................................................................... 22 Structure of the argument ........................................................................................................... 27 Structure of the dissertation ....................................................................................................... 30 Two Llika methodologies: positioning the kamayoq with the constellation of globalized (ethno)development in the Andes........................................................................................................ 34 Living and learning at five kilometres above sea level .............................................................. 35 Kamayoq: between the globalized ethnodevelopment constellation and the decolonial option 44 Llika methodologies ................................................................................................................... 57 Sites and locations ...................................................................................................................... 62 The veil of ‘methods’ ................................................................................................................. 66 Navigating llika: polymorphous engagements and multi-positionality ..................................... 78 Final reflections .......................................................................................................................... 85 v Three Historicizing ethnodevelopment: kamayoq and political-economic integration across governance regimes in the Andes ........................................................................................................ 87 Kamayoq, Andean institutions, and political-economic integration .......................................... 89 “Let these officials not be missing in the kingdom, because if they are they will be punished as lazy or as thieves”: kamayoq and the governance of production in the Inka political-economy ....................................................................................................................... 99 Shifting positions: from communitarian origins to delegated stewardship .............................. 113 Conclusion: re-inscribing kamay, re-framing ethnodevelopment ............................................ 117 Four Re-constructing kamay: the uneven politics of putting ‘ethnic expertise’ to work ........... 119 Franchizing the technique of participatory development ......................................................... 122 Positioning kamayoq I: agricultural innovation systems and the politics of knowledge in Peru .................................................................................................................... 129 Re-institutionalizing kamay: the creation of ‘ethnic expertise’ in Escuela de Kamayoq ........ 133 Positioning kamayoq II: household economies in the Sierra Sur ............................................ 141 “The kamayoq act as a two-way door”: the shift from ‘apender hacer’ to ‘saber hacer’ ........ 146 “They pass like travelling birds” .............................................................................................. 153 “No man is a prophet in his own land” [sic] ............................................................................ 161 Conclusion ............................................................................................................................... 167 Five Creating ethno-entrepreneurial subjects: intercultural education,