Mine Detection Dogs Mine Detection Dogs Training, Operations and Odour Detection Geneva International Centre for Humanitarian Demining 7bis, avenue de la Paix P.O. Box 1300 CH - 1211 Geneva 1 Switzerland Tel. (41 22) 906 16 60, Fax (41 22) 906 16 90 www.gichd.ch i Mine Detection Dogs: Training, Operations and Odour Detection ii Mine Detection Dogs: Training, Operations and Odour Detection The Geneva International Centre for Humanitarian Demining (GICHD) supports the efforts of the international community in reducing the impact of mines and unexploded ordnance. The Centre is active in research, provides operational assistance and supports the implementation of the Anti-Personnel Mine Ban Convention. For further information please contact: Geneva International Centre for Humanitarian Demining 7bis, avenue de la Paix P.O. Box 1300 CH-1211 Geneva 1 Switzerland Tel. (41 22) 906 16 60 Fax (41 22) 906 16 90 www.gichd.ch [email protected] Mine Detection Dogs: Training, Operations and Odour Detection, GICHD, Geneva, 2003. This report was edited for the GICHD by Ian G. McLean, Mine Dog Specialist ([email protected]). ISBN 2-88487-007-5 © Geneva International Centre for Humanitarian Demining The views expressed in this publication are those of the listed author(s) for each part, and do not necessarily represent the views of the Geneva International Centre for Humanitarian Demining. The designations employed and the presentation of the material in this publication do not imply the expression of any opinion whatsoever on the part of the Geneva International Centre for Humanitarian Demining concerning the legal status of any country, territory or area, or of its authorities or armed groups, or concerning the delimitation of its frontiers or boundaries. iii Contents Foreword 1 Introduction 3 Chapter 1. Perspectives on animal learning theory 7 Part 1. Comparing training concepts and styles 7 Ian G. McLean References 10 Part 2. General learning principles for training REST dogs 11 Rune Fjellanger Creating a desired behavioural pattern 11 Shaping 12 • Shaping with the clicker ... 13 Multiple-choice training 15 Stimulus discrimination 15 • Scent discrimination and threshold for detection: an example of discrimination training ... 16 Reinforcement 17 • Positive and negative reinforcers ... 18 • Distribution of reinforcement — intermittent reinforcement ... 18 References 21 Part 3. Principles of animal learning 23 Stewart Hilliard Summary 23 Introduction 25 Animal learning 26 • Habituation ... 26 • Classical conditioning ... 28 • Instrumental conditioning ... 30 Primary and secondary reinforcement and punishment 32 iv Mine Detection Dogs: Training, Operations and Odour Detection Systems of instrumental training 33 • Inducive training ... 33 • Compulsive training ... 33 • Application of inducive training ... 34 • Successive approximation and shaping ... 35 Reward schedules 35 • Application of reward schedules ... 37 • Advantages of variable reward schedules ... 37 Application of compulsive training 38 • Use of physical punishment ... 38 • Use of negative reinforcement ... 39 Generalisation of classical and instrumental conditioning 41 Generalisation of behaviour learned in one context to another context 41 Transfer of learning 42 Chapter 2. Case studies on training mine detection dogs 43 Part 1. Socialising puppies for demining 43 Johan van Wyk and André Le Roux Introduction 43 Choice of parents 44 Care of the dam 45 The new arrivals 45 The socialisation process for the first 16 weeks 45 • Neonatal period (0-2 weeks) ... 45 • Transition period (third week) ... 46 • Socialisation (3-6 weeks) ... 47 • Socialisation (6-8 weeks) ... 48 • Socialisation (8-12 weeks) ... 49 • Socialisation (12-13 weeks) ... 49 • Socialisation (13-14 weeks) ... 50 • Socialisation (14-16 weeks) ... 50 Programme for 4-8 months 51 Programme for 8-12 months 51 Part 2. The REST concept 53 Rune Fjellanger Introduction 53 • The REST case studies: collecting information ... 54 • The REST system in operation ... 55 • Sampling ... 55 • Breaching ... 56 • Analysis of new filter cartridges ... 58 • Handling the filter cartridges and filter containers prior to and during the analysis process ... 60 Training methodology for vapour analysing dogs: three case studies 61 Case study 1: Mechem 61 • Collecting information ... 62 • General ... 62 • Selection of dogs ... 62 • The training programme: explosive odour imprinting ... 63 • The training programme: improving discrimination ... 65 • Assessment of dogs during training ... 66 • Maintenance training ... 66 • Use of REST in the execution of survey contracts: scent trapping and analysis ... 67 Case study 2: Norwegian People’s Aid 69 • The REST project in Angola ... 69 • Collecting information ... 70 • Dog selection ... 70 • Training ... 71 • Explosive odour imprinting ... 72 • Assessment of dogs during training ... 74 • Maintenance training ... 74 • The analysis process ... 76 Contents v Case study 3: Norsk Kompetansesenter for Spesialsøkshund AS (NOKSH AS) 77 • Organisation of the work ... 77 • Selection of dogs ... 77 • Training ... 79 • Explosive odour imprinting ... 81 • Monitoring progress: methods and results for assessment of dogs during training ... 86 • The training programme for REST dogs at NOKSH ... 87 • Maintenance training and operational use ... 91 • Procedures for testing unknown filters ... 91 Analysis and discussion 92 • Sampling ... 93 • Filter cartridges ... 93 • Training of REST dogs ... 95 • Assessment during training ... 97 • Maintenance ... 98 • The operational analysis of filters ... 98 • Further development of REST ... 99 References 101 Annexes: 1. Equipment requirements in training of REST detection dogs 102 2. Examples of sampling, analysis and assessment forms used in REST dog training 105 Part 3. Training dogs to detect tripwires 109 Dan Hayter Tripwire protocol 109 • Lessons learned ... 109 • Introduction of tripwires ... 109 Annexes 1. Protocol for tripwire testing 118 2. Interim study report and summary of results, 10 July 2001 120 3. Interim study report and summary of results, 27 February 2001 125 4. Interim study report, 20 January 2001 127 5. Chemical analysis of tripwires 129 Chapter 3. Training, organisation and skills: case studies of practice using mine detection dogs 139 Per Jostein Matre Introduction 139 Objectives 139 Methods 139 Results 141 • Identification of test criteria for the selection of mine detection dogs ... 141 • Guidelines for the training and handling of mine detection dogs ... 142 • General guidelines for educational programmes for trainers and handlers ... 142 Discussion 142 • Training methods ... 142 • Information flow within organisations ... 143 Principles of practice 146 • Trainer and handler abilities ... 146 Summary and conclusions 147 References 148 vi Mine Detection Dogs: Training, Operations and Odour Detection Annexes: 1. System and practice at organisation N1 149 2. System, collation of knowledge, and management of organisation N2 152 3. Process and collation of knowledge at organisation N3 154 4. Organisational requirement at N4 158 5. Skills and knowledge needed when working with dogs 160 Chapter 4. Programme reviews Part 1. The Mechem Explosive and Drug Detection System (MEDDS) 165 Vernon Joynt Background 165 The MEDDS landmine clearance system 166 Research and development on MEDDS 167 MEDDS 168 • Chemical tests ... 168 • Other Mechem tests ... 169 • Detection distance ... 169 Operational results for MEDDS 170 • Trusting only negative results ... 170 • Use statistics to achieve the 99.6 per cent UN standard of clearance ... 170 • Enhanced MEDDS ...171 • Area reduction ... 171 • Comparison with manual demining ... 172 Part 2. Preliminary results on the use of Cricetomys rats as indicators of buried explosives in field conditions 175 Ron Verhagen, Christophe Cox, Robert Machangu, Bart Weetjens, and Mic Billet Summary 175 Introduction 176 Why rats? 177 • How rats came into the picture ... 177 Which rat? 177 • Cricetomys gambianus ... 178 • Field application of the rat technology ... 180 • Material and methods ... 180 Results 183 • Overall performance ... 184 Conclusions 192 References 193 Chapter 5. Odour detection: the theory and the practice Part 1. How do dogs detect landmines? A summary of research results 195 Ann Göth, Ian G. McLean and James Trevelyan Summary 195 Introduction 196 Aim 197 Contents vii Canine olfactory capabilities and characteristics 197 What substances from landmines are available to the dogs? 200 • Chemical characteristics of substances found in mines ... 200 • Presence of mine substances in soil and vapour ... 202 Discussion and conclusions 204 References 207 Part 2. Chemical sensing for buried landmines: fundamental processes influencing trace chemical detection 209 James M. Phelan and Stephen W. Webb Abstract 209 1. Introduction 211 2. Numbers in chemistry 211 • Key information ... 212 • Scientific notation ... 212 • Concentrations ... 212 • Molecular structure and formulas ... 214 3. Target chemical compounds 215 • Key information ... 215 • TNT manufacturing impurities ... 215 • Vapour signature above bulk TNT ... 215 • Summary ... 217 4. Landmine chemical emissions 217 • Key information ... 218 • Leakage and permeation ... 218 • External surface contamination ... 221 • Polymer coupon permeability ... 222 • TNT solubility in plastics ... 223 • Landmine flux tests ... 224 • Summary ... 227 5. Chemical distribution in soils 227 • Key information ... 227 • Background ... 227 • Air and water solubility ... 228 • Air-water partioning ... 228