The University of Sydney Faculty of Education and Social Work Chiaroscuro: The uses of ‘Homophobia’ and Homophobic Violence in Armed Conflicts and Political Transitions JOSE FERNANDO SERRANO-AMAYA A thesis submitted in fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy August 2014 ii Abstract This research connects studies of gender and sexualities with studies of political conflicts, conflict resolution and democratisation, using two in-depth case studies (Colombia and South Africa). It explores the hypothesis that homophobia, or the set of hatreds bundled under that term, plays a fundamental role in the dispute for hegemony between antagonists during political transitions. The study shows how homophobia, as a form of gender and sexual violence, has both a constructive and deconstructive character in political transitions. It contributes to the transformation of gender and sexual orders required by warfare and deployed by armed groups. It also reinforces the creation of consensus around the projects of change implemented by them. From the perspective of individuals and their organisations such hatreds are part of the embodied experience of violence caused by protracted conflicts and social inequalities. In their struggles for dignity, such violence becomes a reason to mobilise and to transform themselves into political activists. This PhD research is important for theoretical, methodological and political reasons. Theoretically, it creates links between fields of study that have been developed separately from each other, reading concepts applied in one field with the lens of the other. Debates on ‘non-normative’ sexualities are useful in discussing normative concepts such as ‘conflict resolution’. Methodologically, the research analyses issues of documentation, memory and case construction that are of relevance in the field of human rights and gender in post-conflict reconstruction. In terms of political significance, this research is developed at a time in which discrimination against individuals and collectives, because of their sexual orientation and gender identities, is being increasingly recognised in the international arena. This research provides information that has not yet been collected and provides a systematic analysis useful for NGOs and state institutions. ñ Chapter One introduces the research problem and its transformation during the research process. ñ Chapter Two discusses relevant literature, such as the concepts of ‘homophobia’ and ‘political homophobia’. It also introduces discussions about transformation of gender and sexual orders during and after conflicts and presents core concepts for the research. ñ Chapter Three describes the methodological perspective, data collection and data analysis used in the research. It also shows the ethical dilemmas presented by the research topics. iii ñ Chapter Four offers a framework for the analysis of anti-homosexual violence. The framework is adopted from secondary literature, using information from Peru and the former Yugoslavia. ñ Chapter Five and Six present the data produced for the research. Chapter Five presents the data collected in archives in South Africa and Colombia. Chapter Six presents personal narratives based on interviews carfried out in the two countries. Both chapters offer a description of different practices of anti-homosexual violence in political transitions and how they are experienced by individuals. ñ Chapter Seven and Eight contains the case studies of South Africa and Colombia. The case studies are constructed following the analytical frame introduced in Chapter Four and using the data presented in Chapters Five and Six. Both cases offer in- depth descriptions of experiences and uses of anti-homosexual violence during conflicts and in political transitions. ñ Chapter Nine presents the research findings. Findings are discussed in relation with what is already known in the field with new perspectives that the present research opens. ñ Chapter Ten reflects on the research results in order to offer some ideas relevant for policy work and activism, in particular with issues of social transformation in the context of protracted conflicts. ñ Chapter Eleven considers the challenges that the research makes to the studies of sexualities and of political transitions. It revisits core concepts introduced at the beginning of the thesis and shows paths for new theoretical developments. iv Acknowledgments The writing of this thesis was possible because of the kindness, support and knowledge of several persons. I want to express to all of them my gratitude and appreciation. First, my most sincere thanks to Raewyn Connell, my supervisor. Her wisdom and unique style of supervision made this not just an academic experience but a process of personal growth. It was an honour being one her students. Brett Todd spent invaluable time during the application for the International Postgraduate Research Scholarship that made my PhD studies possible. He also helped in my settling in Australia. Without his support I would be getting my PhD somewhere else. My PhD colleagues Claudia Alarcón, Jen Cope, Feifei Han, Warren Matsuoka and Zhila Hasanloo supported me during the happy and less happy moments of such a long enterprise. They listened to my problems with patience and provided me with friendship and support. A PhD thesis cannot end up satisfactorily without that kind of presence. With their comradeship, my mates in the Harbour City Wrestling Club made my experience in Australia more than just about reading academic books and spending long days at the office. They introduced me to a sport that has changed my life. It is never is too late to do anything. Michael Oelofse has been my ‘big bro’ in the Club and in my introduction to South African history and culture. He helped me in creating bridges between my research and my everyday life that I will treasure always. Special acknowledgment to the women and men in South Africa and Colombia who shared their life experiences. Because of them this research was possible. I hope the thesis pays due respect to them and their stories. Dugan Fraser and Brian Feinstein made possible the practicalities of my fieldtrip to Johannesburg and Cape Town. They spent lots of time explaining to me the complexities of such an interesting country. I take any and all responsibility for any misinterpretation I may have made of their knowledge. My acknowledgment to the professionals at the Gay and Lesbian Memory in Action (GALA) and the Historical Papers Archives in the University of Witwatersrand, in Johannesburg, and professionals in Centro de Investigación y Educación Popular (CINEP), in Bogotá, for facilitating me the access to archival material. v My colleagues in Caribe Afirmativo, in Colombia, facilitated my fieldtrips to the Caribbean coast. They were generous in offering their organisational skills and their knowledge of a region in which they face with courage and creativity the challenges of living under several forms of violence. Fernando Ruiz-Vallejo helped me with the analysis of quantitative information. Without his knowledge I would be still counting events on pieces of paper. Many thanks to my friends and family back in Colombia and in Venezuela. Through their support and encouragement I was able to keep the path. My special gratitude to Martin Reyes who assumed in Colombia a task that facilitated my staying in Australia. I dedicate this thesis to my nieces and nephews for making my life even happier. Y una vez más, a mi madre. Es gracias a ella que he entendido lo que es luchar por hacerse una vida digna de vivirse. And finally, to Sebastian Zagarella: vita senza rimpianti… vi Table of Contents Chapter One: Introduction ................................................................................ 1 The problem and its evolution .......................................................................... 4 Chapter Two: Background literature ................................................................ 9 Introduction ...................................................................................................... 9 Conceptualising anti-homosexual violence ....................................................... 9 Political homophobia and politicised homophobia .......................................... 11 Gender and sexual outcomes of conflicts and political transitions .................. 15 On state and nation building ........................................................................... 16 Synthesis ....................................................................................................... 18 Chapter Three: Methods .................................................................................. 20 Introduction .................................................................................................... 20 Methodological perspective ............................................................................ 20 Data collection: archives ................................................................................ 21 Data collection: personal narratives of critical events ..................................... 24 Data management and analysis ..................................................................... 27 On ethics and positionality ............................................................................. 30 Chapter Four: Developing an analysis of anti-homosexual violence .......... 33 Introduction ...................................................................................................