Recovering Women: Intersectional Approaches to African American Addiction Dissertation Presented in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the degree Doctor of Philosophy in the Graduate School of The Ohio State University By Tracy Carpenter, M.A. Graduate Program in Comparative Studies The Ohio State University 2009 Dissertation Committee: Amy Shuman, Advisor Nina Berman Valerie Lee Maurice Stevens Copyright by Tracy Carpenter 2009 ABSTRACT This dissertation uses an interdisciplinary approach to examine the sociopolitical impact and ideological work of stereotypes that stigmatize people with intersecting identities. Focusing on the Crack Mother icon, I first examine how misrepresentations in films, media and literature influence legislation and policies that target poor women of color for punishment. I contextualize the Crack Mother as part of a continuum of cultural icons that represent African American women as deviant. I then incorporate data from ethnographic research among African American Narcotics Anonymous groups to offer an alternative version of African American women’s experience with drug addiction and use of twelve-step recovery approaches. Positing self-representation at the forefront prioritizes perspectives that challenge dominant narratives of addiction. The presentation of African American women as conscientious participants within a folk culture that values determined living turns on its head Western notions of expertise, organization, temporality, illness and so forth. The project is grounded in cultural studies, folklore, and African and African American studies. I incorporate critical race theory when conducting discourse analysis with films and literature from popular culture. I use alignment theory to flesh out participants’ footing in racial, social, gender, religious and other identities using data gathered from ethnographic interviews with 10 African American women members of twelve-step programs with two and more years of continuous abstinence. I ii also conduct analyses of addiction surveys distributed to 23 African American women, more than 10 taped speeches from Narcotics Anonymous events, and observations at over 500 Narcotics Anonymous meetings in two mid-sized, U.S. cities over five years. Alcoholics Anonymous and Narcotics Anonymous program literature was used to show connections between participants’ narratives and program ideology. iii Dedication For Liam, who patiently inspired me to complete this. For Mekhi, my angel. For the women, who recover one day at a time in the face of adversity. iv ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS I give thanks to the women, who graciously invited me into their homes and their lives and trusted me with their stories. This project would not have been possible without you. My son, Liam talked with me about his writing and motivated me with his brilliance to remember how we got here. The unconditional love between a mother and son is precious. And there is no way I would have done this without that love. My husband, Salim remained ever patient and ever “peaceful” when I stopped being the “angel of the house.” Iko tayari, bwana. Sasa, tutaona. Amy Shuman, my advisor, supported me and encouraged me through the entire project from conception to completion. Thanks for asking the hard questions and being excited about this work. Maurice Stevens has impacted me intellectually from the beginning, fueling my desire to be an intellectual and leading me with him into deep thought. Valerie Lee showed me how to do this work, how to talk about and research race and gender in a democratic and thoughtful manner. Nina Berman expressed concern by speaking with honesty when I needed it, pushing me to work harder. Thanks to the committee members, Amy Shuman, Maurice Stevens, Nina Berman, and Valerie Lee, who took the time to read and reread drafts and meet with me for hours to discuss theoretical and methodological frameworks across disciplines. You have all challenged me to think and stand differently through this process in your different ways and it would not have been possible without all of you. v Daniel Reff was my unofficial committee member. He worked tirelessly with me conceptualizing my project and helping me think about how to make it decipherable to outsiders. Katey Borland was my mentor from beginning to end. Thanks for being there for me professionally and being a true friend. I thank my family for supporting me along the way, for the car rides in the middle of the night and my mother’s exclamations, “Well, just finish that paper!” They didn’t always understand, but they came along anyway and for that I am so blessed. I am grateful for the Urquhart family for loving my son when he needed it the most. Lisa, Kelli, Deni, Sande, Linda, Lillie, Branden, Dean, Justine, Greg, Clifford, Fatou, Ron, Janice, Kennedy, Robert, Jennifer, Jenise, Kim, Simone, Vicky. You are my rocks. You love me for me and help me hold it together. InterSect and the Folklore Student Association provided me with opportunities to grow as an intellectual and part of a cohort. The Ethnic Studies Programs helped me to expand my intellectual focus and recognize in a scholarly way the interconnectedness and diversity in injustice I am grateful to the Department of Comparative Studies and Center for Folklore Studies, who offered not just intellectual and academic support, but also emotional and professional support. The American Folklore Society acknowledged the value in my work by awarding me the Zora Neale Hurston Prize; the prize was even more meaningful, because Zora Neale Hurston inspired me to write and study culture. vi VITA June 1992………….B.A. Psychology, University of North Carolina August 2004………M.A. Comparative Studies, The Ohio State University 2009-Present………Lead Professor, College Unbound, Roger Williams University 2002-2007………...Graduate Associate, The Ohio State University 2001-2002…………Instructor, Camden County College 1998-2002………....Substance Abuse Education Specialist, YMCA Resource Center 1993………………..Research Assistant, University of Delaware 1992………………..Research Fellow, University of Delaware vii Table of Contents Abstract............................................................................................................................... ii Dedication.......................................................................................................................... iv Acknowledgements .............................................................................................................v Vita ................................................................................................................................... vii List of Tables ..................................................................................................................... ix Chapter 1: Introduction........................................................................................................1 Chapter 2: Drug Reform and Race in Traffic ....................................................................22 Chapter 3: The Construction of the Crack Mother Icon...................................................61 Chapter 4: Losing Isaiah, A Specific Case Study............................................................123 Chapter 5: Ethnography...................................................................................................157 Chapter 6: Organizational Alignment.............................................................................232 Chapter 7: The Role of Story in the Twelve-Step Program............................................283 Chapter 8: Interpersonal Alignment ................................................................................342 Chapter 9: Linguistic Alignment .....................................................................................399 Chapter 10: Conclusion: Recovery as a Self-Reflexive Process .....................................459 Bibliography ....................................................................................................................466 Appendix A: Patricia G. speech ......................................................................................491 Appendix B: Slang and Jargon .......................................................................................500 Appendix C: Survey ........................................................................................................504 Appendix D: Survey Responses ......................................................................................516 viii List of Tables Table 1: Parents ...............................................................................................................178 Table 2: Drugs Used by Adults .......................................................................................178 Table 3: Age of first use ..................................................................................................179 Table 4: Drug of Choice ..................................................................................................180 Table 5: Age of first use ..................................................................................................516 Table 6: Changes in Children ..........................................................................................516 Table 7: Parents/Gurardians ............................................................................................517 Table 8: Siblings..............................................................................................................517