From ‘Apartheid’ to the ‘Rainbow Nation’ and Beyond: The Representation of Childhood and Youth in South African Coming-of-Age Narratives by Rebecca Rachelle Patterson Thesis presented in fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Master of Arts in the Faculty of Arts and Social Sciences at Stellenbosch University Supervisor: Dr Daniel Roux March 2017 Stellenbosch University https://scholar.sun.ac.za Declaration By submitting this thesis, I declare that I understand what constitutes plagiarism, that the entirety of the work contained therein is my own, original work, that I am the sole author thereof (save to the extent explicitly otherwise stated), that reproduction and publication thereof by Stellenbosch University will not infringe any third party rights, and that I have not previously in its entirety or in part submitted it for obtaining any qualification. Date: March 2017 Copyright © 2017 Stellenbosch University All rights reserved ii Stellenbosch University https://scholar.sun.ac.za Abstract This thesis examines the representation of childhood and youth in South African coming-of- age narratives set in the apartheid and post-apartheid eras. Although child and youth protagonists feature prominently in many South African literary texts, the trope of childhood has yet to be systematically and extensively examined by scholars. Thus, this research attempts to address this gap by surveying a wide-ranging selection of childhood narratives using a modified version of Franco Moretti‟s concept of „distant reading‟. The objective is to map something of the field of childhood and youth in South African texts in order to open it up to various analytical possibilities, hence making a useful contribution to this growing body of research. Indeed, one of the most important contributions of this thesis is the accompanying appendix, which comprises a list of two hundred and forty-five South African texts that feature the theme of childhood to varying degrees. Throughout this study, I approach childhood itself as a critical frame and locus of concern, rather than as a subsidiary trope or lens through which other themes and concepts are highlighted and thus take precedence. In order for this type of comprehensive analysis of childhood and youth to emerge, I investigate and interrogate five main binary oppositions (victim/perpetrator, child/adult, domestic/political, agency/powerlessness, and identity/ difference) that govern notions of childhood. These binaries form a major part of the analysis of apartheid and post-apartheid childhood texts in Chapters Two and Three respectively. One of the central arguments of this study is that despite the paradigmatically severed depictions of childhood that exist side by side (due to apartheid policies of segregation), childhood is nonetheless represented as a „site of struggle‟ regardless of the race, culture, or economic class of the young protagonist. I maintain that these „sites of struggle‟, which are often located within the aforementioned binaries, extend into the post-apartheid era, thus dissolving the utopian vision of a „rainbow nation‟ and a „new‟ South Africa. iii Stellenbosch University https://scholar.sun.ac.za Opsomming Hierdie tesis ondersoek die manier waarop kinders en die jeug se volwassewording- vertellings in die tydperke van apartheid en na-apartheid uitgebeeld word. Alhoewel jeugdige en kinder-protagoniste prominent voorkom in talle Suid-Afrikaanse tekste, is daar tot nog toe nie ‟n sistematiese en uitvoerige bespreking van dié gebied gedoen nie. Daarom be-oog my navorsing om hierdie leemte te vul deur ‟n wye verskeidenheid kinder-narratiewe met behulp van ‟n aanpassing van Franco Moretti se se konsep van “afstand-lees” te gebruik. Die doelstelling is om ‟n riglyn te skep wat verskillende analitiese benaderings ten opsigte van jeuglektuur sal voorstel en om sodoende ‟n nuttige bydrae tot hierdie groeiende studieveld te lewer. Dit beteken dat die meegaande aanhangsel die belangrikste bydrae tot hierde tesis kan wees, aangesien dit bestaan uit ‟n lys van tweehonderd-vyf-en-veertig Suid-Afrikaanse tekste wat tematies in wisselende mate op kinderjare gefokus is. Ek benader deurgaans die kinderjare self as ‟n kritiese raamwerk en uitgangsplek, eerder as ‟n ondergeskikte besprekingsveld en lens wat ander temas en konsepte uitlig wat dan voorkeur geniet. Om ‟n omvattende analise van kinder- en jeugjare daar te stel, het ek vyf binêre teenoorgesteldes wat ‟n rol speel in beskouings van kinderjare ondersoek, naamlik slagoffer/aandadige, kind/volwassene, huishoudelik/polities, bemagtiging/ontmagtiging, identiteit/identiteitsverksille. Hierdie binêre speel veral ‟n groot rol in die analise van apartheid- en na-apartheid kinderlektuur, onderskeidelik in Hoofstuk Twee en Drie. Een van die sentrale argumente van hierdie studie is dat, ten spyte van onversoenbare beskouings van kinderjare wat naas mekaar bestaan, word kinderjare nogtans voorgestel as ‟n plek van verset, ongeag die ras, kultuur of ekonomiese stand van die protagonis. Dit is my mening dat hierdie versetvelde wat dikwels binne die gemelde binêre bestaan, oorvloei na die na-apartheid era en daardeur die utopiese visie van ‟n „reënboognasie‟ en „n „nuwe‟ Suid-Afrika negeer. iv Stellenbosch University https://scholar.sun.ac.za Acknowledgements This thesis has been my constant companion (for better or worse!) over the past few years and there have been many people who have supported and encouraged me along the way, without whom I would not be where I am today. Thus, I would like to extend my sincerest gratitude to the following people: Dr Daniel Roux, my supervisor, for his invaluable guidance, brilliant insight, and ceaseless patience. Thank you for not giving up on me and for your flexibility as I set off on an adventure on the other side of the world. I could not have accomplished this without your support. Brett, Helena, Matthew, Jessie, Vicky-Lee, and Cole Patterson, my parents and siblings, for believing in me and encouraging me every step of the way. Thank you for your love, prayers, phone calls, emails, and those thoughtful surprise parcels and flowers. Thank you for always being there for me when I was in the depths of „thesis-despair‟ and for speaking truth to my doubtful heart. Special thanks goes to Jess for helping me with the practicalities of the final submission. Cap, Gryf, and Mini for being the best „thesis-cheerleaders‟. Thank you for providing much needed respite and for making sure that I still had a social life. Now, finally, I can edit our holiday photos and soon provide you all with new profile pictures. Promise! Annie and Sara, my PT girls, for enduring so many woeful conversations about my thesis and for constant laughs, encouragement, and prayers. It has meant the world to me, so thank you from the bottom of my heart. Thank you to the many friends who have supported me in big and small ways. There are too many to name, but I would like to especially thank Micaela (for kindly checking up on me and for invaluable advice and encouragement), Amanda (for answering countless questions and for reassuring me that it can be done – you are a delight, my friend!), Kathi (what a heart-warming surprise that parcel from Germany was!), Quin, Maleni, and the kids (for welcoming me into your family and being a safe place during a long thesis stretch – and for many a delicious meal!), Candido and family (for allowing me to use your holiday home for a thesis break/marathon), Laura (for giving me time off work during a busy period), Sarah (for your wise counsel, listening ear, kindness, and prayers), the Grant family (you are my favourites), my housemates (for being so kind and gracious as I burned the midnight oil night v Stellenbosch University https://scholar.sun.ac.za after night), and my homegroup and church family (for accepting me, loving me, and calling me to live courageously). Rita Barnard for conducting an amazing thesis-writing workshop that I was privileged enough to attend. Thank you for telling me that I am not my thesis and that I will finish unless I stop. Those (and many more) nuggets of wisdom have stayed with me and have kept me sane throughout this journey. This research would not have been possible without the financial assistance that I received in the form of a Postgraduate Merit Bursary from Stellenbosch University and a Harry Crossley Scholarship. Thank you, I am deeply grateful. Lastly, but most importantly, thank You to my heavenly Father for His unfailing love, endless mercy, and great faithfulness. Thank You Jesus for being my strength when I am weak, my solid rock when I am faltering, my anchor when life is stormy, a haven of peace in the chaos, and my joy through it all. I would not have made it this far without You. Thank You for turning my disappointment and failure into a dance floor time and time again. You have my heart and Your praise will ever be on my lips. “Who is this one? Look at her now! She arises from her desert of difficulty clinging to her Beloved” – Song of Songs 8:5. Soli Deo Gloria. vi Stellenbosch University https://scholar.sun.ac.za Table of Contents Declaration................................................................................................................................ ii Abstract .................................................................................................................................... iii Opsomming .............................................................................................................................