AN EXAMINATION OF THE FREQUENCY AND PSYCHOLOGICAL PREDICTORS OF DISORDERED EATING IN FEMALE SUB-ELITE FIGURE SKATERS By Dana K. Voelker A DISSERTATION Submitted to Michigan State University in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY Kinesiology 2012 ABSTRACT AN EXAMINATION OF THE FREQUENCY AND PSYCHOLOGICAL PREDICTORS OF DISORDERED EATING IN FEMALE SUB-ELITE FIGURE SKATERS By Dana K. Voelker Figure skating has traditionally been considered an “at risk” sport for the development of disordered eating. However, little data exist to support these anecdotal claims with most research focusing on female skaters at the elite level. The primary purpose of this study was to examine the frequency and psychological predictors of disordered eating among female sub-elite skaters. Enough data were collected to also conduct additional analyses with male skaters and make various group comparisons across the sport. A survey battery was administered to skaters across five states, which yielded a final sample of 301 participants ages 12 to 26. Results showed that the majority of skaters were not symptomatic of an eating disorder and actually cited numerous benefits of skating on body image, eating, and exercise. A smaller proportion of skaters scored within clinical range of an eating disorder (i.e., 13.1% [23/176] of female sub-elite skaters, 13.2% [10/76] of female elite skaters, and 3.7% [1/27] of male skaters), but were no more symptomatic than their adolescent and college-aged peers when compared to existing normative data. Among female sub-elite skaters, disordered eating was significantly predicted by body dissatisfaction, perceived weight pressures, and both positive and negative perfectionism (p<.05). Across the entire sample, disordered eating did not differ by skating discipline, competitive level, or sex (p<.05). Together, results suggest that figure skating has the potential to both positively and negatively influence body image, eating, and exercise. Researchers and practitioners are encouraged to adopt a dual-pronged approach such that efforts are made to not only minimize the possible detriments associated with figure skating, but to also maximize its many strengths. DEDICATION This dissertation is dedicated to my loving family and friends and athletes everywhere struggling with negative body image and disordered eating. iii ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS This research was supported by a Research Practicum/Research Development Fellowship from the College of Education at Michigan State University as well as the Institute for the Study of Youth Sports. Institute for the Study of Youth Sports, Department of Kinesiology, and Michigan State University: I simply could not have reached my educational and professional goals without the numerous opportunities and resources afforded by ISYS, the KIN Department, and MSU. I am sincerely grateful for their commitment to the growth and success of graduate students. Dr. Dan Gould: The impact you have made on my life as a mentor and advisor is unmatched. This acknowledgement will not do justice to the care, support, guidance, and knowledge that you have provided me throughout my graduate career. Thank you for who you are and all that you continue to do (and for being the funniest person in the universe!). Dr. Deborah L. Feltz: Thank you for your mentorship in numerous phases of my graduate career, including your contributions on this dissertation committee. I hold your professional accomplishments with the highest regard and very much appreciate your leadership as a Department Chair. Thank you. Dr. Tracey Covassin: I cannot thank you enough for your unconditional support and guidance. You know when someone cares about students when they drop everything to help them at any time of the day, any day of the week. You are truly an exemplary person and professional and not to mention extremely fun! Dr. Justine J. Reel: I am so glad we crossed paths and have been able to share a passion for a very important topic. Working with you has given me confidence in the field, and I look forward to many future collaborations. Thank you for believing in my abilities and my potential. iv Project Support: In addition to my committee members, I am proud to thank the fellow students who provided invaluable support and assistance to the project. Katherine Griffes deserves special recognition for her assistance with the qualitative analysis as well as Alyssa Newton who made a tremendous contribution to the data entry portion of this project. Figure Skating Community: It is a pleasure to thank those who made this dissertation possible, including the many club directors, coaches, skaters, and parents who saw value in the project and provided their support. Dad, Mom, and Gram: The lessons you taught have provided me the strength to reach my highest goals. Your love and support is known every day, and I thank you for being there throughout the journey. The values you have instilled in me are held in the highest regard, including loyalty, leadership, and humility. I love you. v TABLE OF CONTENTS LIST OF TABLES ......................................................................................................................... ix LIST OF FIGURES ....................................................................................................................... xi CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION ...........................................................................................................................1 Overview of the Problem .....................................................................................................4 Significance..........................................................................................................................6 Preliminary Evidence for Disordered Eating in Figure Skaters...............................7 Recent Trends in Figure Skating..............................................................................7 Prevention and Intervention Efforts in Figure Skating Populations ........................9 Study Purposes and Aims ..................................................................................................10 Research Questions and Hypotheses .................................................................................11 Limitations and Assumptions ............................................................................................14 Operational Definitions ......................................................................................................14 CHAPTER 2 REVIEW OF LITERATURE ........................................................................................................17 Relevant Terminology in the Eating Disorder Literature ..................................................17 Clinical Eating Disorders .......................................................................................18 Subclinical Eating Disorders..................................................................................19 Prevalence Estimates and Trends.......................................................................................20 Trends in the General Population ..........................................................................20 Trends in Sport .......................................................................................................21 Athletic Status ............................................................................................22 Sex Differences ..........................................................................................23 Competitive Level ......................................................................................25 Sport Type ..................................................................................................26 Consequences of Disordered Eating ..................................................................................28 Female Athlete Triad .............................................................................................29 Disordered Eating and Menstrual Dysfunction..........................................29 Disordered Eating and Poor Bone Health ..................................................30 Other Physical Consequences ................................................................................31 Psychological Disturbances ...................................................................................33 Performance Implications ......................................................................................34 Risk Factors for Disordered Eating in Sport ......................................................................35 Social Pressures .....................................................................................................35 Specific Features and Requirements of Sport ........................................................38 Psychological Characteristics ................................................................................38 Figure Skating ....................................................................................................................39 Figure Skating Subculture......................................................................................40 Nutritional and Physiological Status of Figure Skaters .........................................43 Disordered Eating, Body Image, and Weight Concerns in Figure Skaters ............46 vi Prevalence of Disordered Eating, Body Image, and Weight Concerns in Figure Skaters ........................................................................................46