ATTITUDES TOWARDS BISEXUAL MEN AND WOMEN: THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN RESPONDENTS’ ATTITUDES AND THEIR SEXUAL ORIENTATION by MARLENE ARNDT THESIS submitted in fulfilment of the requirements for the degree DOCTOR LITTERARUM ET PHILOSOPHIAE in PSYCHOLOGY in the FACULTY OF HUMANITIES at the UNIVERSITY OF JOHANNESBURG PROMOTER: DR K DE BRUIN JANUARY 2009 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS Many people have helped me along the way: My deepest gratitude to my supervisor, Dr. Karina de Bruin who tirelessly and meticulously assisted me during the writing of this thesis. Your kindness is appreciated. Writing, like everything else in life, is easier with the support of a loving family. My mother and father have been a source of strength to me. They have given me the freedom and ability to enjoy life to the fullest. For this gift, I thank them. My grandmother who has always encouraged me to be all that I can be. My brother Andre, who supported me in the past and who will be there with me in the future. Thank you Charl, Meghan and Thora for your love and laughter. To all my friends and relatives who remembered my name and continued to call despite my long social hibernation. Thank you. Helena, I could not have continued to sit at my computer day after day without your generous spirit, healing energies, gutsy inspiration and laughter. The financial assistance of the National Research Foundation (NRF) towards this research is acknowledged. Opinions expressed and conclusions arrived at are those of the author and are not necessarily to be attributed to the NRF. I also remember all of those who have passed away. ii ABSTRACT This study posits that although the South African government has shown an unprecedented commitment to acknowledging and upholding the human rights of bisexual men and women, negative attitudes exist towards bisexual men and women. A mixed method research study was conducted, consisting of three phases. In the first phase of the study (quantitative), a biographical questionnaire, the Attitudes Regarding Bisexuality Scale (ARBS-FM) (Mohr & Rochlen, 1999), and the Sexual orientation scale of Berkey, Perelman-Hall and Kurdek (1990) was utilised. A total of undergraduate 1 459 students were selected by convenience sampling. However, the reliability of the scales of the ARBS-FM in this student sample appeared to be significantly lower than desired. Therefore, the researcher organised an expert group (N = 11). This second section of the study served as expert advice from cultural interpreters that brought about adaptation of the measures (qualitative) and was complementary to the quantitative study. The researcher endeavoured to seek elaboration and clarification of the results from one method with the results of the other method. In the third phase of the study a revised ARBS (consisting of two scales measuring attitudes towards bisexual men and women separately), a biographical questionnaire, and the sexual orientation scale was administered. A total of 578 undergraduate students were selected by convenience sampling. The psychometric properties of the revised ARBS instruments were investigated by means of confirmatory factor analyses. Results indicated a two-factor structure (Tolerance and Stability) for both of the ARBS-F and ARBS-M. Tucker’s coefficients of congruence showed that attitudes towards bisexual men and women may be measured by an integrated scale. Differential item functioning (DIF) and differential test functioning (DTF) analyses suggested the removal of some items that favoured either the black or the white group. The revised ARBS- F and revised ARBS-M were used for testing the stated hypotheses. The results indicated that participants’ attitudes towards bisexual men and women vary on a range of factors such as gender, religiosity, contact, and the sexual orientation of iii the participants. Both heterosexual and homosexual students have more negative attitudes towards bisexual men and women than bisexual students. This double discrimination by heterosexuals and the gay and lesbian community is seldom recognised or acknowledged. Therefore, the current research findings elucidate that this oppression is real, and may have negative psychological effects on bisexual men and women. The results are discussed against the background of previous studies, and suggestions for future research are made. Key words: bisexual men, bisexual women, biphobia, homophobia, heterosexism, sexual orientation, university community, survey, attitudes, students. iv TABLE OF CONTENTS Acknowledgements ii Abstract iii Table of contents v List of tables xii List of figures xv CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION, RATIONALE AND AIM OF THE STUDY 1.1 Introduction 1 1.2 Sexuality in the South African context 2 1.3 Rationale of the study 5 1.4 Aim of the study and research questions 10 1.5 Terminology 13 1.6 Preview of the contents of the following chapters 16 CHAPTER 2 BISEXUALITY: A HISTORICAL AND CROSS-CULTURAL INQUIRY 2.1 Introduction 17 2.2 A historical inquiry 17 2.2.1 Classical Rome and Greece 18 2.3 The psychopathological and psychological debate regarding bisexuality 22 2.4 The gay liberation and women’s movement 29 2.5 A positive approach to sexuality 30 2.6 Bisexual identity development 32 2.7 Defining and measuring sexual orientation 40 v 2.8 A cross cultural inquiry 48 2.8.1 Cross-cultural studies and bisexuality 48 2.9 Chapter summary 51 2.10 Preview of the contents of the following chapter 51 CHAPTER 3 TWO LIVES TO LEAD: BISEXUAL MEN AND WOMEN 3.1 Introduction 52 3.2 The prevalence of bisexuality 52 3.3 Bisexual men and women 57 3.3.1 The basis of sexual attraction in bisexual men and women 57 3.3.2 Similarities, differences, and milestone events in the lives of bisexual men and women 59 3.4 Situational bisexuality 62 3.4.1 Introduction 62 3.4.2.1 Same-sex boarding schools 63 3.4.2.2 The prison environment 63 3.4.2.3 The military service 66 3.4.2.4 Prostitution and bisexuality 68 3.5 Chapter summary 69 3.6 Preview of the contents of the following chapter 70 CHAPTER 4 ATTITUDES TOWARDS BISEXUAL MEN AND WOMEN 4.1 Introduction 71 4.2 Attitudes and the Social Identity Theory 71 4.3 Attitudes and bisexual invisibility 75 4.3.1 Attitudes towards bisexual men and women 80 vi 4.3.2 Internalised biphobia 91 4.3.3 The psychological health of bisexual men and women 93 4.4 Chapter summary 98 4.5 Preview of the contents of the following chapter 99 CHAPTER 5 RESEARCH METHOD 5.1 Introduction 100 5.2 Aim of the study 100 5.3 A three phase research method 100 5.4 Research questions 101 5.5 Hypotheses 101 5.6 Phase one: Quantitative research method 102 5.6.1 Procedure 102 5.6.2 Participants 103 5.6.3 Instruments utilised in the first phase 103 5.6.3.1 Attitudes regarding Bisexuality Scale (ARBS-FM) 104 5.6.3.2 Sexual orientation instruments utilised in the first phase 106 5.6.3.3 Biographical questionnaire utilised in the first phase 108 5.7 Phase two: Expert advice 112 5.7.1 The aim of the expert group 114 5.7.2 The role of the researcher and ethical considerations 115 5.7.3 Participants of the expert group 115 5.7.4 Thematic analysis of the expert advise group discussion 116 5.8 Phase three: Quantitative research method 117 5.8.1 Procedure 117 5.8.2 Participants 117 5.8.3 Biographical questionnaire 118 5.8.4 Instruments administered in the third phase 118 vii 5.8.4.1 Revised version of the ARBS-FM 119 5.8.4.2 Revised version of the categories of sexual orientation 120 5.9 Statistical analyses 120 5.10 Chapter summary 122 5.11 Preview of the contents of the following chapter 122 CHAPTER 6 RESULTS 6.1 Introduction 123 6.2 Phase one: Statistical findings of the quantitative study 123 6.3 Phase two: Findings of the focus group 124 6.3.1 Discussing bisexuality 125 6.3.2 Discussing the ARBS-FM 126 6.3.3 Discussing the categories of sexual orientation 127 6.4 Phase three: Statistical findings of the quantitative study 128 6.4.1 Confirmatory factor analysis of the revised ARBS-F 128 6.4.2 Confirmatory factor analysis of the revised ARBS-M 133 6.4.3 Structural equivalence of factors 137 6.4.4 Reliabilities of the revised ARBS-F and ARBS-M subscales 137 6.4.5 Correlations between male and female subscale scores 138 6.5 Differential item functioning (DIF) and differential test functioning (DTF) 140 6.6 Hypothesis one 144 6.6.1 Investigating differences between black and white students regarding their performance on the revised ARBS-F 144 6.6.2 Investigating differences between black and white students regarding their performance on the revised ARBS-M 145 6.7 Hypothesis two 146 6.7.1 Investigating differences between male and female students regarding their performance on the revised ARBS-F 146 viii 6.7.2 Investigating differences between male and female students regarding their performance on the revised ARBS-M 147 6.7.3 Effect of ethnicity on gender differences 149 6.8 Hypothesis three 150 6.8.1 Investigating differences between students that know or do not know a bisexual man or woman regarding performance on the revised ARBS-F 150 6.8.2 Investigating differences between students that know or do not know a bisexual man or woman regarding performance on the revised ARBS-M 152 6.8.3 Effects of ethnicity on knowing and not knowing a bisexual man or woman 153 6.9 Hypothesis four 154 6.9.1 Investigating differences between students knowing and not knowing a lesbian woman or gay man regarding performance on the revised ARBS-F 154 6.9.2 Investigating differences between students knowing and not knowing a gay man or lesbian woman regarding performance on the revised ARBS-M 155 6.9.3 Effects