A HISTORY OF MINING IN BROKEN HILL (KABWE): 1902-1929 BY BUZANDI MUFINDA THIS THESIS HAS BEEN SUBMITTED IN ACCORDANCE WITH THE REQUIREMENTS FOR THE DEGREE OF MASTER OF ARTS IN THE FACULTY OF THE HUMANITIES, FOR THE CENTRE FOR AFRICA STUDIES AT THE UNIVERSITY OF THE FREE STATE. FEBRUARY 2015 SUPERVISOR: PROF. I.R. PHIMISTER CO-SUPERVISOR: DR L. KOORTS DECLARATION I declare that the dissertation hereby submitted by me for the Master of Arts degree at the University of the Free State is my own independent work and has not previously been submitted by me at another university/faculty. I furthermore cede copyright of the dissertation in favour of the University of the Free State. Buzandi Mufinda i DEDICATION I dedicate this work to the memory of my late parents, Edward Mufinda, and Rosemary Mufinda, and to my niece Chipego Munene and hope one day she might follow in the footsteps of academia. ii ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS Glory is to the enabling power of the Almighty God whose hand has worked through many ways to make it possible for me to accomplish this study. I would like to express my sincere appreciation to my supervisor, Professor Ian Phimister, for the patient guidance, encouragement and advice he has provided throughout my time as his student. I have been extremely lucky to have a supervisor who cared so much about my work, and who responded to my questions and queries so promptly. To Doctor Lindie Koorts, your expertise in structuring and editing of this work continually amazed me. Thank you also for your moral support. Not forgetting my mentor Professor B.J. Phiri. I could not have asked for a better role model, inspirational, supportive, and patient. I would also like to thank the International Studies Group of the University of the Free State for their support. In particular, I would like to thank Mrs Ilse le Roux who became my personal confidante and helped me through difficult situations. Doctor Kate Law for the suggestions she made in reference to Chapter 2. To my siblings, Lorraine, Machendu, Edward and Chimembe you have been the best of friends along this journey in your unwavering support, understanding and tolerance in many ways during the study. Even in times of despondency and discouragement you encouraged me to work hard. Completing this work would have been all the more difficult were it not for the support and friendship provided by Alfred Tembo, Doctor Clement Masakure, Ivo Mhike, and Doctor Mercy Mukuma. Last but not the least my ‘partner in crime’ Unaludo Sechele for her wise counsel and providing a friendship that would last through the years. To the following academic institutions, the National Archives of Zambia, Zambia Consolidated Copper Mines, Livingstone Museum and University of Zambia (Special Collection Department) my deepest appreciation for allowing me to consult the collections in your care. iii Table of Contents DECLARATION ..................................................................................................................................... i DEDICATION ........................................................................................................................................ ii ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ................................................................................................................... iii LIST OF FIGURES ............................................................................................................................... vi LIST OF TABLES ................................................................................................................................ vii ABSTRACT ......................................................................................................................................... viii CHAPTER ONE ..................................................................................................................................... 1 INTRODUCTION .................................................................................................................................. 1 Historical Background ........................................................................................................................ 1 Literature Review ................................................................................................................................ 4 Sources and Methodology ................................................................................................................. 11 Limitations of the Study .................................................................................................................... 13 Structure of the Study ....................................................................................................................... 14 CHAPTER TWO .................................................................................................................................. 15 BROKEN HILL A DUBIOUS MINE 1902 – 1913 ............................................................................. 15 The Southern African Mining Context ............................................................................................. 15 The British South Africa Company .................................................................................................. 18 Prospectors in Northern Rhodesia ..................................................................................................... 19 The Discovery of Lead and Zinc Deposits ........................................................................................ 21 The Establishment of the Mine ......................................................................................................... 22 The Mining Environment: Early Challenges .................................................................................... 23 The Physical Environment ............................................................................................................ 23 Diseases......................................................................................................................................... 25 Early Labour ................................................................................................................................. 26 Transport Problems: The Need for a Railway Line ...................................................................... 27 The Coming of the Railway Line ...................................................................................................... 28 Freight Charges ............................................................................................................................. 29 Complex Ores ................................................................................................................................... 30 The Reconstruction of the Company ................................................................................................ 34 CHAPTER THREE .............................................................................................................................. 36 FROM ZINC TO LEAD: BROKEN HILL MINE IN THE FIRST WORLD WAR ........................... 36 Context of the War ............................................................................................................................ 36 Lead-Zinc and the War ................................................................................................................. 37 iv Demand for Base Metals: Copper, Zinc and Lead ........................................................................ 39 The War and British Trade Policy ................................................................................................ 42 Position of the Broken Hill Mine ...................................................................................................... 43 Impact of the War on Broken Hill Mine: 1915-1917 ............................................................................ 49 Production Output and Enlargement of the Smelter Plant ................................................................ 50 Challenges ......................................................................................................................................... 51 Labour Issues at Broken Hill Mine ................................................................................................... 54 Influenza Pandemic: 1918 ................................................................................................................. 56 The Way Forward ................................................................................................................................. 57 CHAPTER FOUR ................................................................................................................................. 60 FULL-PRODUCTION OF MINERALS AND ECONOMIC FLUCTUATIONS: 1919-1929 .......... 60 Financial Arrangements .................................................................................................................... 61 Lead Smelter and Zinc Industry ........................................................................................................ 61 Profits ................................................................................................................................................ 62 Boom in Lead Production and the Emergence of Small Mines: 1920-1923 ..................................... 63 Capital and Shares: 1924 .................................................................................................................