University of New Hampshire University of New Hampshire Scholars' Repository Kinesiology Scholarship Kinesiology 2020 Dartmouth Outward Bound Center and the rise of experiential education 1957-1976 Jayson Seaman University of New Hampshire - Main Campus, [email protected] Robert MacArthur Birch Corner Associates, [email protected] Sean Harrington University of New Hampshire, Durham, [email protected] Follow this and additional works at: https://scholars.unh.edu/kinesiology_facpub Part of the Health and Physical Education Commons, Humane Education Commons, and the Outdoor Education Commons Recommended Citation Seaman, J., MacArthur, R., and Harrington, S. (in press). Dartmouth Outward Bound Center and the rise of experiential education, 1957-1976. Forthcoming in History of Education Review. doi:10.1108/ HER-07-2019-0024 This Article is brought to you for free and open access by the Kinesiology at University of New Hampshire Scholars' Repository. It has been accepted for inclusion in Kinesiology Scholarship by an authorized administrator of University of New Hampshire Scholars' Repository. For more information, please contact [email protected]. 1 Seaman, J., MacArthur, R., and Harrington, S. (in press). Dartmouth Outward Bound Center and the rise of experiential education, 1957-1976. Forthcoming in History of Education Review. doi:10.1108/HER-07-2019-0024 Abstract Purpose: The article discusses Outward Bound’s participation in the human potential movement through its incorporation of T-group practices and the reform language of experiential education in the late 1960s and early 1970s. Design/methodology/approach: The article reports on original research conducted using materials from Dartmouth College and other Outward Bound collections from 1957-1976. It follows a case study approach to illustrate themes pertaining to Outward Bound’s creation and evolution in the United States, and the establishment of experiential education more broadly. Findings: Building on prior research (Freeman, 2011; Millikan, 2006), the present article elaborates on the conditions under which Outward Bound abandoned muscular Christianity in favor of humanistic psychology. Experiential education provided both a set of practices and a reform language that helped Outward Bound expand into the educational mainstream, which also helped to extend self-expressive pedagogies into formal and nonformal settings. Research implications: The Dartmouth Outward Bound Center’s tenure coincided with and reflected broader cultural changes, from the cold war motif of spiritual warfare, frontier masculinity, and national service to the rise of self-expression in education. Future scholars can situate specific curricular initiatives in the context of these paradigms, particularly in outdoor education. Originality/value: The article draws attention to one of the forms that the human potential movement took in education – experiential education – and the reasons for its adoption. It also reinforces emerging understandings of post-WWII American outdoor education as a product of the cold war and reflective of subsequent changes in the wider culture to a narrower focus on the self. NOTE: Emerald Publishers allows authors to deposit their Author Accepted Manuscript (AAM) under the Creative Commons Attribution Non-commercial International License 4.0 (CC BY-NC 4.0). The AAM is deposited under this license and that any reuse is allowed in accordance with the terms outlined by the license. For the sake of clarity, commercial usage would be considered as, but not limited to: • Copying or downloading AAMs for further distribution for a fee; • Any use of the AAM in conjunction with advertising; • Any use of the AAM by for promotional purposes by for-profit organisations; • Any use that would confer monetary reward, commercial gain or commercial exploitation. To reuse the AAM for commercial purposes, contact [email protected]. 2 Dartmouth Outward Bound Center and the Rise of Experiential Education, 1957-1979 In a 1998 essay, David Roberts, the award-winning adventure writer and an early Outward Bound (OB) instructor in the U.S., observed: OB got a huge boost toward credibility in the late 1960s from academic reformers and the human potential movement, with their emphasis on experiential education and interpersonal dynamics. And the school seemed willing to modify its objectives to suit the fashions of the times. (p. 116) Roberts worked as an instructor in 1963, one year after Outward Bound opened its first U.S. base in Colorado’s Rocky Mountains. The nascent program hired skilled outdoorsmen and veterans of the Army’s famed 10th Mountain Division to staff its inaugural courses for 160 adolescent boys “divided into twelve-man ‘patrols’ named after American wilderness heroes like Boone, Crockett, Bridger, and Carson” (Roberts, p. 115). The patrols’ rigorous, 26-day schedule consisted of a daily run followed by an icy swim, rock climbing, a six-mile foot race, a simulated mountain rescue, and a five-day, student-led backpacking trip. In 1964 Outward Bound received national exposure when Life magazine published a complimentary article entitled Marshmallow becomes a man, featuring a doughy teenager on one of its courses. The article’s final photograph depicts him posing shirtless after the course, proudly flexing his biceps, captioned: “Family gets a streamlined son with muscles and a cowboy hat.”1 As Millikan (2006) observes, the Life article was something of a caricature but accurately captured how central masculinity was to the organization’s identity at the time. This was Outward Bound as Roberts liked it: tough, hardening, befitting its motto: To serve, to strive, and not to yield. His complaint was that, just a few short years after opening, Outward Bound USA had itself gone soft, a consequence of its Faustian partnership with academics and human potentialists who introduced “experiential education” to the organization. Many key details lie behind Roberts’s lament. The transformation it glibly describes is extracted from the historical context of the early versus late 1960s – a critical period within Outward Bound that Freeman (2011) marked as being defined by the shift from character training to personal growth, an updated but morally underspecified term underwritten by humanistic psychology. Nonetheless, Roberts points to several elements critical to understanding the broader educational relevance of Outward Bound’s transformation during this time: the mainstreaming of ideas and practices from the human potential movement through the spread of experiential education. It is tempting to dismiss the human potential movement as a faddish brand of 1970s counterculture, however doing so risks overlooking its abiding educational legacy. The present article discusses the conditions under which experiential education rose to prominence in Outward Bound in the U.S. and contributed to the rise of self-expressive pedagogies more broadly (see Tobin, 1995). It focuses on Dartmouth College, an elite, Ivy League university in the northeastern U.S., which housed an Outward Bound center from 1968 to 1984. The Dartmouth Outward Bound Center (DOBC) was the only collegiate program ever to receive an official charter and served as a demonstration and training site for other American Outward Bound schools and reform-minded colleges in the 1970s. It thus occupied a unique position of influence within the organization and played a leading role in expanding experiential education, both as a reform language and a set of practices, in Outward Bound and beyond. 3 Dartmouth’s story contributes to a historical perspective on outdoor education in several ways. First, it highlights the important but largely unacknowledged role the College played in Outward Bound’s migration to the United States beginning in the 1950s. Second, it illustrates in finer detail how Outward Bound’s establishment in the U.S. grew from an ideological convergence of religion, masculine symbology, and internationalism shared by educational and political elites during the cold war (Dean, 1998). Third, it extends prior research documenting Outward Bound’s shift in emphasis from character training to personal growth (Freeman, 2011), a change that represented the broader displacement of muscular Christianity in favor of humanistic psychology as the organization’s reigning ideological framework. Finally, it captures an important moment in North American outdoor education as resident outdoor education, which thrived in the U.S. between 1930-1970, was eclipsed by what William Hammerman (1980) called “The Period of Experiential Education.” The article situates the origin of this period in the late 1960s when Outward Bound USA adopted and disseminated ideas, models, and practices from the human potential movement. Studying the Human Potential Movement Although the human potential movement phrase still appears in academic and popular outlets, it was less a coherent platform with explicit political aims and more a set of beliefs and practices that enjoyed widespread cultural circulation between 1950-1980, especially among the American middle class (Grogan, 2013). At its core was an ontology of the person as radically autonomous and a conviction that personal disclosure, sensory exploration, and emotional revelation provide evidence of human authenticity, and therefore create the basis for self- knowledge and so should be maximized (see Howard, 1976). Its most conspicuous artifact was the encounter group,