NISTNCSTAR1-8 Federal Building and Fire Safety Investigation of the World Trade Center Disaster The Emergency Response Operations J. Randall Lawson Robert L. Vettori Natiohal Institute of Standards and Technology • Technology Adminlslrollon • U.S. Deportment of Commerce NISTNCSTAR1-8 Federal Building and Fire Safety Investigation of the World Trade Center Disaster The Emergency Response Operations J. Randall Lawson Robert L. Vettori Building and Fire Researcti Laboratory National Institute of Standards and Technology September 2005 U.S. Department of Commerce Carlos M. Gutierrez, Secretary Technology Administration Michelle O'Neill, Acting Under Secretary for Technology National Institute of Standards and Technology William Jeffrey, Director Disclaimer No. 1 Certain commercial entities, equipment, products, or materials are identified in this document in order to describe a procedure or concept adequately or to trace tlie liistory of the procedures and practices used. Such identification is not intended to imply recommendation, endorsement, or implication that the entities, products, materials, or equipment are necessarily the best available for the purpose. Nor does such identification imply a finding of fault or negligence by the National Institute of Standards and Technology. Disclaimer No. 2 The policy of NIST is to use the International System of Units (metric units) in all publications. In this document, however, units are presented in metric units or the inch-pound system, whichever is prevalent in the discipline. Disclaimer No. 3 Pursuant to section 7 of the National Construction Safety Team Act, the NIST Director has determined that certain evidence received by NIST in the course of this Investigation is "voluntarily provided safety-related information" that is "not directly related to the building failure being investigated" and that "disclosure of that information would inhibit the voluntary provision of that type of information" (15 USC 7306c). In addition, a substantial portion of the evidence collected by NIST in the course of the Investigation has been provided to NIST under nondisclosure agreements. Disclaimer No. 4 NIST takes no position as to whether the design or construction of a WTC building was compliant with any code since, due to the destruction of the WTC buildings, NIST could not verify the actual (or as-built) construction, the properties and condition of the materials used, or changes to the original construction made over the life of the buildings. In addition, NIST could not verify the interpretations of codes used by applicable authorities in determining compliance when implementing building codes. Where an Investigation report states whether a system was designed or installed as required by a code provision, NIST has documentary or anecdotal evidence indicating whether the requirement was met, or NIST has independently conducted tests or analyses indicating whether the requirement was met. Use in Legal Proceedings No part of any report resulting from a NIST investigation into a structural failure or from an investigation under the National Construction Safety Team Act may be used in any suit or action for damages arising out of any matter mentioned in such report (15 USC 281a; as amended by P.L. 107-231). National Institute of Standards and Technology National Construction Safety Team Act Report 1-8 Natl. Inst. Stand. Techno!. Natl. Constr. Sfty. Tm. Act Rpt. 1-8, 808 pages (September 2005) CODEN: NSPUE2 U.S. GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE WASHINGTON; 2005 For sale by the Superintendent of Documents, U.S. Government Printing Office Internet: bookstore.gpo.gov — Phone: (202) 512-1800 — Fax: (202) 512-2250 Mail: Stop SSOP, Washington, DC 20402-0001 Contributors NIST Personnel • J. Randall Lawson, leader, data collection, investigation, first-person interviews, analysis and report preparation. • Robert L. Vettori, data collection, investigation, first-person interviews, analysis, and report preparation. • Stephen A. Cauffman, first-person interviews and data collection. • Schuyler Ruitberg, transcribed audio recordings and emergency response data files. • Lisa Petersen, transcribed audio recordings and emergency response data files. • Jason Averill, coordinated contractor data collection and coordination on occupant behavior, egress, and emergency communications. • Ronald Meininger, assisted with formatting and enhancing emergency response audio recordings. NIST Emergency Responder Experts The following personnel provided expert views related to the investigation's planning, data gathering, and review of information. • Vincent Dunn, retired Chief Officer, New York City Fire Department (FDNY) • John J. Hodgens, retired Chief Officer, (FDNY) • Kevin S. Malley, retired Director of Human Performance, (FDNY) NISTNCSTAR 1-8, WTC Investigation 111 Contributors This page intentionally left blank. NISTNCSTAR 1-8, WTC Investigation iv Dedication On September 11, 2001, the City of New York was attacked by terrorists who flew large commercial aircraft into the twin towers of the World Trade Center. Immediately, emergency responders from across the city began operations to protect the citizens of New York City and to save lives at the World Trade Center. With these efforts, many emergency responders gave their lives, and many more were seriously injured. The injuries from this attack were more than physical. The emotional toll for these emergency responders and their families will always be with them. This report is dedicated to all the emergency responders who lost their lives that morning, to all emergency responders who were injured, and to all emergency responders and the families who live with the anguish caused by this attack. NISTNCSTAR 1-8, WTC Investigation V Dedication This page intentionally left blank. NISTNCSTAR 1-8, WTC Investigation vi Abstract The September 11, 2001, attack on the World Trade Center (WTC) caused the deaths of 2,749 people. Included in the group were approximately 421 emergency responders from The Fire Department of the City of New York (FDNY), The New York City Police Department (NYPD), the Port Authority Police Department (PAPD), The Port Authority of New York and New Jersey (PANYNJ), from WTC security firms, and volunteer emergency responders who were in the WTC area of the city when the attack occurred. This report addresses the operations of these emergency responders, the technologies used during WTC operations, and the guidelines and practices that governed these operations. The objectives of this study were to 1 ) fully document what happened during the response by the emergency services to the attacks on the WTC, up to the time of collapse of WTC 7; (2) identify issues that need to be addressed in changes to practice, standards, and codes; (3) identify alternative practices and/or technologies that may address these issues; and (4) identify R&D needs that advance the safety of the fire service in responding to massive fires in tall buildings. The approach taken was to conduct a comprehensive search for data related to the emergency response on September 1 1, 2001, analyze the data, and report on the findings. Data gathering included the collection of written documents, electronic recordings, visual data (both photographs and video), and first-person accounts of what happened during WTC operations. Results from this investigation show that the emergency responders were faced with the greatest disaster of the last 100 years in the United States. The emergency responders had one common focus: to save as many victims of this attack as possible. During the response, emergency responders had to function under war-like conditions as they carried out their rescue and evacuation efforts. Emergency responders operated with equipment, human endurance, and emergency response practices that were stretched well beyond normal limits. This report discusses how the emergency response activities and equipment were challenged. The emergency responders paid a heavy price in the loss of hundreds of their own lives when the WTC buildings collapsed. This study focused on the following topics: • emergency responder dispatch and response to the WTC • emergency responder access to the WTC site and towers • command and control associated with the emergency response • coiTununications during operations and the of communications in tall buildings • firefighting in high-rise buildings and the evacuation from the WTC towers • emergency responder situational awareness and the physiological impact of conducting operations in tall buildings Keywords: Buildings, emergency responders, emergency medical service, evacuation, firefighters, firefighting, police, rescue, search, World Trade Center. NISTNCSTAR 1-8, WTC Investigation VH Abstract This page intentionally left blank. vni NISTNCSTAR 1-8, WTC Investigation Table of Contents Contributors iii Dedication v Abstract vii List of Figures xv List of Tables xvii List of Acronyms and Abbreviations xix Metric Conversion Table xxi Preface xxv Acknowledgments xxxv Executive Summary xxxvii Chapter 1 Introduction 1 LI Purpose 2 1 .2 Technical Approach 2 Chapter 2 Collection of Emergency Response Data 5 2.1 Introduction 5 2.2 Methodology 5 2.2.1 Documentary Data 5 2.2.2 Electronic Data 7 2.2.3 First-Person Interviews 10 2.2.4 Visual Data 15 Chapter 3 Impact of the February 1993 Bombing on Emergency Response in Tall Buildings 17 3 . 1 Changes Made by PANYNJ 17 3.2 Changes Made by FDNY 18 3.2.1 Incident Command System 18 3.2.2 Communications 19 3.2.3 Interagency