In the Grip of Political Clientelism: The Post-1974 Turkish Cypriot Politics and the Politico-Economic Foundations of Pro-Taksim Consensus V U v D b g-Essen zur Erlangung des akademischen Grades Dr. rer. pol. genehmigte Dissertation von Sertac Sonan aus Nikosia, Zypern 1. Gutachter: D - g 2. Gutachter: Prof. Dr. Susanne Pickel Tag der Disputation: 18/03/2014 Diese Arbeit wurde vom Fachbereich Gesellschaftswi U v Duisburg-Essen als Dissertation zur Erlangung des Doktorgrades (Dr. rer. pol.) genehmigt. Name der Gutachterinnen und Gutachter: 1. D - g 2. Prof. Dr. Susanne Pickel Tag der Disputation: 18/03/2014 ii Contents Acknowledgments .................................................................................................................................................. v Abbreviations ......................................................................................................................................................... vi Tables ..................................................................................................................................................................... viii Introduction ............................................................................................................................................................ 1 Chapter 1: Theoretical Framework: What is Political Clientelism? ................................................ 14 1.1 Clientelism of Notables ........................................................................................................................ 15 1.2 Party-Based Patronage (Machine Politics) ................................................................................... 23 1.3 Accounting for the Emergence of Political Clientelism: Three Theoretical Approaches ............................................................................................................................................................................... 29 1.4 Research Strategy ................................................................................................................................... 38 Chapter 2: The Turkish Cypriot Political Community in the Making: History of Electoral Politics and Roots of Taksim Policy ............................................................................................................. 43 2.1 A Brief Overview of Politics among Turkish Cypriots in the British Period .................... 43 2.2 Taksim: The Birth of a Vision for a Turkish Cypriot Political Community ....................... 49 2.3 The 1960 Republic and the First Elections .................................................................................. 53 2.4 The Evolution of Separate Turkish Cypriot Administrations ................................................ 60 2.5 Elections in the Post-1968 Period ................................................................................................... 67 2.6 The Role of Political Clientelism in the Pre-1974 Period ........................................................ 72 Chapter 3: Why Political Clientelism? Priorities of the Political Elite and their Choice of Mass Political Mobilization Strategy ........................................................................................................... 78 3.1 Demand Side: Socio-Economic Structure of the Population .................................................. 80 3.2 Supply Side: The Resource Base and the State of Bureaucracy ............................................ 85 3.3 The Taksim Policy and Legitimacy Crisis of the Ruling Political Elite ............................... 96 3.3.1 External Dimension ....................................................................................................................... 97 3.3.2 Internal Dimension..................................................................................................................... 104 iii 3.4 Setting the Stage: The Wider Political and Institutional Context ..................................... 108 Chapter 4: UBP: The Anatomy of a Machine ......................................................................................... 116 4.1 Dividing Lines Between Parties and Denktaş’s Catch 22 ..................................................... 116 4.2 A Brief Overview of the UBP’s Establishment Process, Program, and Social Composition .................................................................................................................................................. 121 4.3 The Party Organization ..................................................................................................................... 126 4.4 The First Wave of Mass Political Mobilization and the Setting Up of the Machine .... 132 Chapter 5: A Ruling Party at Odds with Itself ....................................................................................... 144 5.1 The Rise of the Junta .......................................................................................................................... 146 5.2 Split Within the Junta and Raif Denktaş’s Anti-Clientelistic Intra-Party Opposition 157 5.3 Denktaş’s Reclaiming of the Party ................................................................................................ 166 5.4 Fall of the Junta and the Unlikely Rise of Eroğlu – Revenge is a dish best served cold! ............................................................................................................................................................................ 176 5.5 The Emergence of the Rift between Denktaş and Eroğlu .................................................... 183 Chapter 6: The Left’s Perfect Storm: A Politico-Economic Analysis of the End of the Monopoly of Nationalism in Turkish Cypriot Politics ....................................................................... 192 6.1 Delayed Catalysis: The Agonies of the Old Regime ................................................................ 194 6.2. The Public Sector: How bloated is it? ......................................................................................... 203 6.3 Bureaucratic Clientelism .................................................................................................................. 208 6.4 The Collapse .......................................................................................................................................... 216 Conclusions ........................................................................................................................................................ 228 Annex .................................................................................................................................................................... 235 Bibliography ....................................................................................................................................................... 236 iv Acknowledgments This dissertation is the culmination of years of research and along the way I have accumulated a great deal of practical and intellectual debts. My biggest debt is to my supervisor Heinz-Jürgen Axt. I would like to thank him for his guidance, kindness and patience in this long process. Carlo Masala has always been generous with his time and comments. My debt to him goes far deeper than these words of thanks can convey. I am indebted to Hannes Lacher who encouraged me to pursue PhD and guided me in the early phases of the research. Yücel Vural’s endless support throughout my post-graduate studies has been invaluable. My sincere thanks go to Ahmet Cavit An, Altay Nevzat, Mehmet Birinci, Mehmet Öner Ekinci, Mete Hatay, Tuncay Yalçuk and Thomas Jütting for their contribution at different stages of the research. I am also grateful to all the people who consented to be interviewed. My research was partly funded by Dr. Ahmet Cemal Adademir and his wife Asiye Adademir Education Foundation. Çağın Refik, a member of the board of trustees of the foundation, deserves special mention. Finally, very special thanks go to my parents, Fatma and Hasan, my cousin Şerif Çağlı, and my wife Meral. Without their support this dissertation would not have existed. v Abbreviations AKEL Progressive Party of the Working People (Greek Cypriot) AP Justice Party (Turkey) AKP Justice and Development Party (Turkey) CHP Republican People’s Party (Turkey) CTP Republican Turkish Party DC Christian Democracy (Italy) DP Democratic Party DHP Democratic People’s Party DMP Democratic Struggle Party DPÖ State Planning Organization EOKA National Organisation of Cypriot Fighters (Greek Cypriot) EU European Union HLFS Household Labor Force Survey HP Populist Party İŞAD TRNC Businessmen Association İTEM Settlement, Land Distribution and Equivalent Property Law KATAK Association of Turkish Minorities of the Island of Cyprus KTÖS Primary School Teachers Union KTTO Turkish Cypriot Chamber of Commerce RoC Republic of Cyprus SEE State Economic Enterprise TBP Turkish Unity Party TFSC Turkish Federated State of Cyprus TRNC Turkish Republic of Northern Cyprus vi TMFA Turkish Ministry of Foreign Affairs TMT Turkish Resistance Organization UBP National Unity Party UN United Nations YDP New Birth Party vii Tables Table 1: Total employment figures ........................................................................................................... 205 Table 2: HLFS basic indicators ..................................................................................................................