University of Alberta Widows of Kilimanjaro by Constance Lynn Geekie A thesis submitted to the Faculty of Graduate Studies and Research in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy Department of Anthropology ©Constance Lynn Geekie Fall 2011 Edmonton, Alberta Permission is hereby granted to the University of Alberta Libraries to reproduce single copies of this thesis and to lend or sell such copies for private, scholarly or scientific research purposes only. Where the thesis is converted to, or otherwise made available in digital form, the University of Alberta will advise potential users of the thesis of these terms. The author reserves all other publication and other rights in association with the copyright in the thesis and, except as herein before provided, neither the thesis nor any substantial portion thereof may be printed or otherwise reproduced in any material form whatsoever without the author's prior written permission. This work is dedicated to the memory of Mrs. Lucy Msuya (1941-2007) of the Moshi Widows Education and Counseling Centre. Abstract This ethnographic study examines how social structure constrains the well-being of widows in the Kilimanjaro region of Tanzania, explores the role of women‘s agency in bettering their lives, and looks at tension between international and local development projects. I collaborated with the Moshi Widows Education and Counseling Centre (MOWECCE), an organization that provides community sensitization seminars, individual counseling, social support, legal advice, and a small loans program. Focusing on gender equality, the organization promotes widows‘ rights to raise their children, to protect themselves from AIDS, to economic security, and to respect within their communities. Factors that appear to mitigate the structural challenges of widowhood in Tanzania include education, social support, employment out of the home, having children, and strong relationships between the widow and her husband‘s clan. While social structure influences outcomes, understanding the role of social action in constructing healthy communities offers insight into the process of social change. Keywords: Widows, Kilimanjaro, gender equality, social structure and agency Acknowledgements First, I would like to acknowledge the support given to me by the women of the Moshi Widows Education and Counseling Centre in Moshi, Tanzania (MOWECCE). These women not only shared their own experiences of widowhood, but encouraged other women in the region to add their stories and experience to the research. Their contributions to the research enriched both the process and results of the work. Without their endorsement and active participation, this research would not have possible. Within this group, I particularly wish to thank Beribesta Minja, Lucy Msuya, and Domina Tesha. As leaders of MOWECCE, they exemplify the potential of women to organize themselves, engage with social injustice, and make a difference for those who are marginalized within the social structure of the larger community. Tesha, in particular, acted as my confidante, cultural guide, and friend throughout the time I spent in Africa. I would also like to thank my supervisory committee for their ongoing support and encouragement through the process of field work and writing this dissertation. My supervisor, Dr. Christopher Fletcher, has always encouraged this work, adding to the practical and theoretical aspects of the work. His friendship and confidence in my ability to achieve my goals is an ongoing source of inspiration. Dr. Helen Vallianatos‘ friendship, expertise, and insight have helped throughout the process. Dr. Gregory Forth has consistently encouraged my work since my undergraduate days, enabling my academic development throughout much of the last decade. Dr. Pamela Willoughby has provided me with both practical and emotional support; her generous sharing of knowledge and time have greatly eased and enriched my experiences of working in Africa. Her open door has offered a place to laugh and learn with a friend. Dr. Philomena Okeke has always shared her insight and expertise, and I sincerely value these contributions. To all of you, I would like to extend my heartfelt thanks, not only for your practical and academic support, but for your friendship over the years. Research in Africa is an expensive undertaking, and I would like to thank the following for the generous financial support that enabled my research in Tanzania: 1) The Department of Anthropology at the University of Alberta for the two full semesters of Graduate Assistantship (fall 2005, winter 2007). 2) Fund for Support of International Development Activities (FSIDA), University of Alberta, 2007. 3) J Gordin Kaplan Graduate Student Award, 2007, Faculty of Graduate Studies and Research, University of Alberta Finally, I would like to recognize and thank my family for their ongoing support, without which I could not have accomplished any of this work. My children, Kris and Catherine, along with their families, inspire me at every level. My husband, Robert, is always there to protect and encourage me, no matter what I have chosen to do. His love and caring are the strengths I rely on every day of our life together. Table of Contents Chapter 1 – Introduction 1 Continuity within the larger scale of African literary sources 13 Chapter 2 – Context for the research 20 Politics and economy 21 The environment 25 Gender inequity and violence against women in Tanzania 27 Women and the Law 31 Kilimanjaro and the Wachagga 35 A sense of place 39 Ritual ties to the land 43 Marriage in Kilimanjaro 47 Continuity between the natural and the supernatural 49 Conclusion 53 Chapter 3 – Methodology 54 Gaining access 56 Phase 1 – October to December 2005 57 Phase 2 – May to July 2006 62 Phase 3 – January to April 2007 63 Phase 4 – June to July 2007 66 Analysis 67 Conclusion 68 Chapter 4 – Themes from the data 70 Social status and support 72 Poverty 76 Children and education 81 Remarriage and sexuality 84 Widow inheritance 88 Women‘s rights to property, Women and the law 91 Ukimwi, HIV/AIDS 93 Resilience and successful transition from wife to widow 101 Chapter 5 – The Moshi Widows Education and Counseling Centre (MOWECCE) 111 The future 117 MOWECCE and social action 120 Solidarity networks 134 Leadership 136 Relationships outside the organization 141 Chapter 6 – Six widows 146 Domina Tesha (b. 1941) 149 Berbesta Minja (b. 1945) 160 Angelika Makalo (b. 1949) 167 Theresia Msaky (b.1947) 174 Felista Amos (b. 1956) 181 Hilda Edmond (b. 1974) 186 Chapter 7 – Two families, five widows 191 Levina and Marcelina Sangawe 198 Chapter 8 – Local and International Development 205 Chapter 9 – Conclusion 220 Limitations to the research 224 Strengths of the research 224 Directions for further research in this area 225 Implications of the research 226 References 228 Appendix 1 – List of participants 239 Appendix 2 – Interview guide 242 Appendix 3 – Schedule of research, October 2005-July 2007 247 List of Figures 2.1 Africa (TTB 2008) 20 2.2 Map of Tanzania 20 3.1 Members of the MOWECCE research team 61 3.2 Poster for rural women 64 3.3 Poster for urban women 65 4.1 Anna and her daughter 94 4.2 Amber and her daughter 98 5.1 Uru seminar July 2006 120 6.1 Domina Tesha 149 6.2 Berbesta Minja 159 6.3 Berbesta‘s home 161 6.4 Angelika Makalo 166 6.5 Theresia Msaky 173 6.6 Feslista Amos and her granddaughter 180 6.7 Hilda Edmond and her children 184 7.1 Bibi 191 7.2 Constanzia 192 7.3 Margareth 194 7.4 Levina Sangawe 197 7.5 Marcelina Sangawe 200 Acronyms ART - Anti-retroviral therapy CBO – Community Based Organization CEDAW - Convention on Elimination of all Forms of Discrimination Against Women (1985) CUSO - Canadian University Students Overseas GDP - Gross Domestic Product HIV/AIDS – Human Immunodeficiency Virus / Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndrome IWRAW - The International Women's Rights Action Watch KCMC - Kilimanjaro Christian Medical Centre KIWA – Kilimanjaro Widows Association KIWAKKUKI - Kikundi cha Wanawake Kilimanjaro Kupambana na UKIMWI (Women Against AIDS in Kilimanjaro) KIWODEA - Kilimanjaro Women Development Association KWIECO - Kilimanjaro Women Information Exchange and Consultancy Organization MOWECCE – Moshi Widows Education and Counseling Centre NGO – Non-Governmental Organization SAP – Structural Adjustment Program TAWLA – Tanzania Women Lawyers Association TSH – Tanzanian shilling UKIMWI – Upungufu wa Kinga Mwilini (HIV/AIDS in Kiswahili) USAID – United States Agency for International Development WAT – Women‘s Advancement Trust WODEF – Widows, Orphans, and Disabled Development Foundation YWCA – Young Women‘s Christian Association Chapter 1 Introduction The Haya people of northwestern Tanzania tell the story of an old woman who, while coming from the village one night, fell and hit her head on a stone that lay on the twisting path that led back to her home. Badly hurt, she lay all night on the ground, slipping gradually into a coma, unconscious, and barely breathing. The following morning, her family found her and, believing her dead, began to prepare for her burial. As these preparations took place over the next three days, the old woman began to rouse from her coma and became aware of what was going on around her. Lying quietly on her pallet, she considered what she should do next. She reflected back to the evening of her fall and wondered what her family would think if they knew the circumstances of her fall. She feared that if they knew that she had been in the village drinking pombe, the strong alcoholic drink that is brewed and sold in all the local cantinas, the family would think less of her. As a widow, who already occupied a difficult space in the social network of her dead husband‘s clan, she was afraid that the family would censure her, and perhaps even banish her from their midst. She considered all of the humiliations she had endured since her husband‘s death, and how these had led up to the evening of drinking in the village, but knew the consequences of telling her story might be difficult to bear.