Between Middle Eastern Heterodoxy, Indigenization and Modern Shi'ism: Competing Identities among the Balkan Alevi and Bektashi Communities in the Post-Ottoman Period Yuri Stoyanov The post-Ottoman evolution, interchange and occasional contrariety between traditional (and/or inherited) and ascribed (in the modern period) Alevi and Bektashi identities in the Balkans is part of the larger process of the transformation, reform and ever-changing politics of identity of heterodox religious communities in the eastern Mediterranean and Middle East following the fragmentation and disestablishment of the Ottoman empire after World War 1. The phenomenon of the ongoing characteristic revival and re-conceptualizations of Alevism in Turkey and the Alevi diaspora in Western Europe since the late 1980s and their diverse religious, cultural and social manifestations has been explored by historians, political scientists, theologians, anthropologists, sociologists, ethnomusicologists and so on, and their respective perspectives and methodologies, with some of the research coming from within the Alevi community. This rediscovery of Anatolian Alevism (Alevilik) in the scholarly and public sphere has not been accompanied (with few exceptions) by a similarly pronounced interest (or comparable publications output) in the contemporaneous, if often differing processes among the existing ethno-religious Alevi groups in the Balkans and the (variously related to them) surviving or revived regional networks and lodges of the Bektashi dervish order. Hence the purpose of this article is to draw attention to these processes and the promising vistas for future research they offer.1 The fact that many of the Balkan Alevi and Bektashi groups have remained little-known, 'barely researched'2 communities is certainly regrettable. A comparative study of the patterns of Alevi and Bektashi interactions with post- Ottoman modernity in Anatolia and the Balkans against the background of the respective processes involving other heterodox religious communities in the Middle East can shed further useful light on the manifold effects of the related pressures 1 I acknowledge with gratitude that my fieldwork and visits to and research in regional archives in the Balkans and Turkey in 2001-2004 (related to the research on this article) were supported by a Wingate Scholarship for 2001-2002, granted by the Harold Hyam Wingate Foundation, London, and British Academy Research Grants, awarded in 2003 and 2004. 2 Markus Dressler, 'The Modern Dede: Changing Parameters for Religious Authority in Contemporary Turkish Alevism', in Speaking for Islam: Religious Authorities in Muslim Societies, ed. Gudrun Krämer and Sabine Schmidtke (Leiden: Brill, 2006), 271. 164 PART II | Political and Cultural Legacies of migration, urbanization and secularization on the beliefs, ritual systems and traditional hierarchical and communal structures of such sectarian organizations and groups. The fortunes of the Alevi communities and the Bektashi order in the Balkans during the post-Ottoman, post-World War II and post-communist periods have followed divergent trajectories to those of their counterparts in Anatolia and the comparable communities or tarikat in the Middle East, being determined by very different religious and socio-political circumstances. The absence of sufficient research interest in and publications on the ethno-religious Balkan Alevi communities and the networks and centres of the Bektashi dervish order variously associated with them in the region, which has continued until very recently, was caused to a great degree by objective factors such as the difficult access (by West European or Turkish researchers) to these communities, their religious and cultic sites (tekkes, zaviyes, türbes, etc.), internal written sources and oral traditions throughout much of the communist period in Eastern Europe. Thus various areas of research into these communities (especially related to the theological provenance of their beliefs and roots of their ritual observances), initiated in the post-Ottoman and interwar periods, were left in a state of suspended animation in the communist-dominated Balkan states, whereas local anthropological and folklorist research on these groups was developing slowly and erratically, as research on the spiritual and mystical aspects of Balkan heterodox Islam was variously deemphasized, discouraged or marginalized during the communist period. Still, the post-communist restoration of religious freedoms led not only to more public and social visibility for these Alevi and Bektashi groups in the last two decades but highlighted the necessity of a serious investigation of their history, beliefs and rituals and of integrating the resultant material and conclusions into the study of their Anatolian counterparts and of Middle Eastern heterodoxy and syncreticism in general. The need for such expansion of research into Alevism and Bektashism has acquired contemporary relevance by the fact that varying from one Balkan area to another, the restored presence of these communities in the various local and regional religious, political and social discourses has also reawakened some of the characteristic theologically, polemically and nationalistically motivated approaches to their identity developed in the late and early post-Ottoman period, a phenomenon which finds important and suggestive parallels in the contemporaneous Middle Eastern contexts, as illustrated by the ongoing intense polemics focused on the origins and religious affinities of Near Eastern religious minority groups such as the Yezidis, Ahl-e Haqq and the Druze. Many aspects of the recently revived and continuing intense debates about (or within) Anatolian and West European- diaspora Alevism concern the problem of Alevi identity(ies), including the role of Shi'ism as well as contact with Middle Eastern heterodoxy in its formation. A closer study of the post-Ottoman identity politics and claims associated with the Balkan Alevis and Bektashis can greatly contribute to a deeper understanding of the far-reaching religio-political STOYANOV | Competing Identities 165 implications of this problem and the debates stemming from it. Such a study is not easy to accomplish as yet, as it needs to take into account relevant material from disparate Balkan areas and periods, starting from the establishment of the first modern Balkan nation-states to the post-communist transformations and realignment of religious actors and institutions on the Balkan multi-confessional scene. The following analysis will try, therefore, to highlight some of the important venues of current research and public debates related to this problematic and provide some preliminary observations on their impact on the future identity politics of these Balkan heterodox minorities vis-à-vis contemporary religious and political developments in Turkey and the Middle East. Post-Ottoman Alevism – Historiographies, Ideologization and Political Instrumentalization The numerous religious and historical problems posed by the emergence and evolution in the early Ottoman era of the various Anatolian heterodox groups (which came to be described by the umbrella term Kızılbaş, to be largely replaced latterly, while also remaining interchangeable with 'Alevi'), the roots of some of them in the rebellious Baba'î groups of the Seljuk period and the exact nature of their early interrelations with the Bektashi order (as well as their development into the Ottoman era) remain outside the scope of this article.3 However, it is worth noting at this point that the presence, range and provenance of Shi'ite elements in the beliefs and rites of the early Kızılbaş communities and Bektashi dervishes, as well as the vexed question of whether some of them may predate the extension of Safavid proselytism into Anatolia, betraying an earlier impact of Middle Eastern ghulât traditions, continue to be under close debate. As in the adjacent Middle Eastern areas, the borderline between Shi'a-influenced and Shi'a- leaning heterodox Islamic currents in early Ottoman Anatolia was not always fixed and some of these heterodox circles or dervishes could also adopt shari'a- related notions and practices from Sunni Islam. The investigation of the diverse evidence for the history of the Bektashi order, its interrelations with the Kalender dervish groups, its association with the Janissary corps, its links and organizational parallels to the Ottoman craft guilds, the akhis, and its role in the expanding Ottoman dominions from Anatolia into Europe and the Middle East has been undergoing steady, if somewhat (given the nature of the sources) slow progress. Recent studies have broken promising new 3 For earlier studies of Alevism and Bektashism, with an emphasis on their syncretism, see, e.g., John K. Birge, The Bektashi Order of Dervishes (London: Luzac, 1937) (repr. 1994). For more recent studies, see, among others, the various relevant articles of Irène Mélikoff collected in Irène Mélikoff, Sur les traces du soufisme turc: recherches sur l'Islam populaire en Anatolie (Istanbul: Isis, 1992) and Irène Mélikoff, Au banquet des quarante: exploration au coeur du bektachisme-alevisme (Istanbul: Isis, 2001); the relevant contributions in Syncretistic Religious Communities in the Near East, ed. K. Kehl- Bodrogi, B. Kellner-Heinkele and A. Otter-Beaujean (Leiden: Brill, 1997), 195-205. 166 PART II | Political and Cultural Legacies ground, for example, in the research on the continuing presence and alliances of the order