Ecological compensation of highway impacts; negotiated trade-off or no-net-loss? Cuperus, R. Citation Cuperus, R. (2005, January 13). Ecological compensation of highway impacts; negotiated trade-off or no-net-loss?. Retrieved from https://hdl.handle.net/1887/581 Version: Not Applicable (or Unknown) Licence agreement concerning inclusion of doctoral License: thesis in the Institutional Repository of the University of Leiden Downloaded from: https://hdl.handle.net/1887/581 Note: To cite this publication please use the final published version (if applicable). Ecological compensation of highway impacts: Negotiated trade-off or no-net-loss? Ruud Cuperus 1 ‘… In the end we will conserve only what we love, we will love only what we understand …’ (freely adapted from: Bada Diom, Senegal) 2 Ecological compensation of highway impacts: Negotiated trade-off or no-net-loss? Proefschrift ter verkrijging van de graad van Doctor aan de Universiteit Leiden, op gezag van de Rector Magnificus Dr. D.D. Breimer, hoogleraar in de faculteit der Wiskunde en Natuurwetenschappen en die der Geneeskunde, volgens besluit van het College voor Promoties te verdedigen op donderdag 13 januari 2005 klokke 14.15 uur door Ruurd Cuperus geboren te ’s-Gravenhage in 1958 3 Promotiecommissie Promotor: Prof. dr. H.A. Udo de Haes Co-promotor: Dr. K.J. Canters Referent: Prof. dr. R.T.T. Forman, Harvard University, Cambridge (USA) Overige leden: Prof. dr. P. Baas Prof. dr. P. Glasbergen, Universiteit Utrecht Prof. dr. E. van der Meijden Prof. dr. P.F.M. Opdam, Wageningen Universiteit & Research Centrum Prof. dr. G.R. de Snoo This research was conducted in the Netherlands over two periods at: - the Institute of Environmental Sciences of Leiden University (Centrum voor Milieuwetenschappen Leiden, formerly: Centrum voor Milieukunde Leiden) (1995-1996), and - the Dutch Ministry of Transport, Public Works and Water Management (Rijkswaterstaat), Road and Hydraulic Engineering Division (Dienst Weg- en Waterbouwkunde) (1997-2004), Delft. Cuperus, R. (2004). Ecological compensation of highway impacts: Negotiated trade-off or no-net-loss? ISBN 90-369-5571-8 DWW-2004-077 Design front page: Strapatz, Delft, The Netherlands Printed by Strapatz, Delft, The Netherlands 4 Contents Contents Summary 9 Samenvatting 33 Part 1: Introduction to the ecological compensation principle and to the questions and issues addressed in this dissertation 43 1. Introduction 45 1.1 History of the ecological compensation principle in the Netherlands 47 1.2 Development and significance of the ecological compensation principle 50 1.3 Ecological compensation: the international context 53 1.4 Practical issues arising during implementation in the Netherlands 56 1.5 The questions and issues addresses in this dissertation 58 1.6 The issues not addressed in this dissertation 59 1.7 Readers’ guide 60 Part 2: Articles and summary of results 65 2. Ecological compensation of the impacts of a road; preliminary method for the A50 road link (Eindhoven-Oss, the Netherlands) 67 Ruud Cuperus, Kees J. Canters & Annette A.G. Piepers (1996), Ecological Engineering 9: 327-349 3. Guidelines for ecological compensation associated with highways 101 Ruud Cuperus, Kees J. Canters, Helias A. Udo de Haes & Debra S. Friedman (1999) Biological Conservation 90: 41-51 4. Ecological compensation in Dutch highway planning 129 Ruud Cuperus, Marco M.G.J. Bakermans, Helias A. Udo de Haes & Kees J. Canters (2001), Environmental Management 27(1): 75-89 5 Contents 5. Preparation and implementation of seven ecological compensation plans for Dutch highways 163 Ruud Cuperus, Marleen Kalsbeek, Helias A. Udo de Haes & Kees J. Canters (2002), Environmental Management 29(6): 736-749 6. Compensating for ecological impacts of road development: seven years’ experience with Highway A50 (Eindhoven-Oss, Netherlands) 193 Ruud Cuperus, Simone Thoolen, Henk van de Wolfshaar & Anne-Marie Graat (2002), Milieu 17(3): 97-109 (Dutch Journal, translated) 7. Improving ecological input in Dutch road planning 215 Ruud Cuperus (2003), KenMERken 10(3): 8-12 (Dutch Journal, translated) 8. Summary of results 233 8.1 Results on planning and decision-making 236 8.2 Results on implementation 238 8.3 Results on compensation costs 240 8.4 Results on evaluation and monitoring 241 8.5 Results on legal aspects 241 8.6 Results on public support 242 8.7 Results on gaps in knowledge 243 Part 3: Discussion, conclusions, recommendations and perspectives 245 9. Discussion: answering the questions 247 9.1 The role of ecological compensation in planning and decision- making on national road projects 249 9.2 Implementation aspects of compensation measures 251 9.3 Broader applicability of ecological compensation 256 9.4 Advantages and drawbacks of the main options for science-based compensation measures 258 9.5 Problems encountered in practice 261 6 Contents 10. General conclusions, recommendations, perspectives and summarising conclusions 263 10.1 General conclusions 265 10.2 Recommendations 269 10.3 Perspectives 272 10.4 Summarising conclusions 276 List of references 283 Curriculum vitae 299 Nawoord 301 7 8 Summary Ecological compensation of the highway impacts: Negotiated trade-off or no-net-loss? Summary The subject of this dissertation is the ecological compensation principle and its use as a means of addressing the impacts of road construction. More specifically, it offers a critical examination of how the principle has been applied in the context of the planning and construction of the Dutch ‘national’ roads, i.e. motorways and other trunk roads. The study was conducted over two periods at: ● the Institute of Environmental Sciences of Leiden University (1995-1996); ● the Road and Hydraulic Engineering Division of the Directorate-General of Public Works and Water Management (1997-2004). The dissertation consists of three parts. Part 1 (Chapter 1) situates the basic issues and elaborates the specific research questions addressed. In Part 2 (Chapters 2 to 7) these questions are treated in detail in six articles published between 1996 and 2003 in international and Dutch journals; Chapter 8 summarizes the results of these articles. Part 3 first discusses several problematical and as yet unresolved aspects of the ecological compensation principle (Chapter 9). This discussion and the formulated general conclusions lead to a number of recommendations as to how the policy framework of the compensation principle might be refined to improve the effectiveness with which it is applied in the context of national road- building as well as possibly other development projects (Chapter 10).This chapter ends with the perspectives of the compensation principle and summarising conclusions of this dissertation. Part 1: Introduction Chapter 1 outlines the background of the Dutch ecological compensation principle, its consequences for the Directorate-General of Public Works and Water Management, Rijkswaterstaat, the government agency responsible for its practical implementation, and the problems and research questions addressed in this dissertation. 9 Summary Prior to its implementation in the context of transportation infrastructure projects in 1993, the principle of ecological compensation had already been applied informally and ad hoc for a number of years in other policy areas in the Netherlands, notably forestry and land use. With the publication of the National Structure Plan for the Rural Areas, in 1993, the ecological compensation principle was formally introduced as an element of national policy. It is to be applied in relation to several categories of designated nature area, principal among them the areas comprising the Ecological Main Structure. The Structure Plan sets out a phased planning and decision-making procedure involving both the initiator of the project in question and the competent authority. The first phase involves weighing up the perceived need for the project and its anticipated benefits against the projected loss of ecological values. This phase is steered by the principle of ‘no unless’ and culminates in a basic decision on whether or not the project may go ahead. In principle, no developments may be implemented in protected areas. If on the basis of the information emerging in this phase approval is withheld, the formal procedure is concluded. If the project is approved, given its perceived overall benefits to society, and it is anticipated that the ecology of the area concerned will suffer in any way as a result, the procedure moves into its second phase. In all cases measures must then be taken to mitigate the ensuing damage and, to the extent that such steps are inadequate, measures taken to compensate any remaining damage. The stated aim here is ‘no-net-loss of ecological values’. Ecological compensation thus plays an important role in both key phases: ● in project planning and decision-making, through improved input of conservation interests; ● in implementation of projects that have received government approval. This gives rise to a policy ‘ladder’ that in the course of project development seeks successively: ● to avoid ecological impacts, ● to mitigate any unavoidable impacts, i.e. reduce their severity, ● to compensate for any impacts that may then remain, aiming at a physical ‘zero-sum’ equation, ● financial compensation. In the context of national road projects, avoidance of ecological damage means the road either not being granted approval after due consideration of its merits or 10 Summary being displaced horizontally or vertically to prevent ecological impact.