Peace Education in Afghanistan: A Comparative Study of Conflict and Post-Conflict School Textbooks By Hafiza Yazdani A thesis submitted to the University of Otago in fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy National Centre for Peace and Conflict Studies Te Ao o Rongomaraeroa The University of Otago Dunedin, New Zealand 1 Table of Contents List of Appendixes ................................................................................................ iv List of Figures ........................................................................................................ v List of Abbreviations ...........................................................................................vii Preface .................................................................................................................... 1 Abstract .................................................................................................................. 3 Chapter 1 .......................................................................................................... 5 1.1 Introduction ............................................................................................. 5 1.2 Background to the Study ......................................................................... 5 1.3 Research Rationale and Objective ........................................................ 10 1.4 Literature Review .................................................................................. 13 1.5 Theoretical Framework ......................................................................... 32 1.6 Significance of This Research ................................................................ 45 1.7 Limitations and structure of thesis ........................................................ 46 1.9 Conclusion .............................................................................................. 48 Chapter 2 ............................................................................................................. 52 Background Information on Formal Education in Afghanistan ....................... 52 2.1 Introduction ........................................................................................... 52 2.2 Afghanistan’s Population and Culture .................................................. 52 2.3 Afghanistan’s History and Political Instability ..................................... 56 2.3.1 Clan Rule 1747 – 1973 ............................................................................ 56 2.4 Education in Afghanistan ...................................................................... 61 2.5 Education Challenges in Afghanistan ................................................... 77 2.6 Women’s Education in Afghanistan, 1919 - 2014 ................................. 78 2.7 Informal Education in Afghanistan....................................................... 80 2.8 Timeline of Different Regimes/Governments and Education Changes in Afghanistan ............................................................................................ 82 2.9 Conclusion .............................................................................................. 85 Chapter 3 ............................................................................................................. 86 Research Methodology ........................................................................................ 86 i 3.1 Introduction ........................................................................................... 86 3.3 Overview of Social Science Research .................................................... 89 3.4 Content Analysis .................................................................................... 91 3.5 Research Design ................................................................................... 100 3.6 Translation ........................................................................................... 103 3.7 Development of Categories .................................................................. 103 3.9 Checking Validity and Reliability ....................................................... 107 3.10 Limitations ........................................................................................... 108 3.11 Conclusion ............................................................................................ 108 Chapter 4 ........................................................................................................... 110 Research Data Description and Analysis .......................................................... 110 4.1 Introduction ......................................................................................... 110 4.2 Section 1: Findings of School Textbooks under the Afghanistan Islamic Republic Government (AIRG), 2001-2014 .......................................... 111 4.3 Section 2: Findings of School Textbooks under People’s Democratic Party of Afghanistan Government PDPA 1978 - 1992 ....................... 143 4.4 Section 3: Findings of School Textbooks under the Islamic State of Afghanistan Government ISAG 1992-1996 ......................................... 155 Chapter 5 ........................................................................................................... 172 Comparative Data Analysis ............................................................................... 172 5.1 Introduction ......................................................................................... 172 5.2 Comparative Finding of Dari Language Textbooks by Peace Education Elements ............................................................................................... 173 5.3 Comparative Findings of Algebra Textbooks by Peace Education Elements ............................................................................................... 190 5.4 Comparative Finding of Textbooks by Curriculum .......................... 194 5.5 Total References by Curricula Including Dari Language and Algebra Textbooks ............................................................................................. 196 5.6 Learning points .................................................................................... 200 5.7 Conclusion ............................................................................................ 201 Chapter 6 ........................................................................................................... 203 Discussion ........................................................................................................... 203 6.1 Introduction ......................................................................................... 203 ii 6.2 Political Influence, and School Textbooks During PDPA and ISAG Governments ........................................................................................ 204 6.3 Politics and the History of Formal Education in Afghanistan ........... 209 6.4 Culture of Violence and School Textbooks During PDPA and Mujahedeen Government .................................................................... 211 6.5 School Textbooks and Integration of Peace Education in AIRG: Recognition of Violence and Nonviolent Conflict Transformation .... 212 6.6 Gender Mind ........................................................................................ 214 6.7 Integration of Positive Peace and Lessons Learned ............................ 221 6.8 Reflection of Peace Education Content in all Possible School Subjects226 6.9 Application of Peace Education in Afghanistan as a Fragile Country228 6.11 Conclusion ............................................................................................ 231 Chapter 7 ........................................................................................................... 232 Conclusion and Recommendations ................................................................... 232 7.1 Introduction ......................................................................................... 232 7.2 Summary of Key Findings ................................................................... 233 7.3 Conclusion ............................................................................................ 236 7.4 Strengths of This Research .................................................................. 237 7.5 Limitations of This Research ............................................................... 238 7.6 Contribution of This Thesis to Peace Education Literature .............. 240 7.7 Contribution of This Thesis to Afghanistan Ministry of Education Policy Implementation .................................................................................... 241 7.8 Further Recommendation and Course of Actions .............................. 242 References List ................................................................................................... 247 iii List of Appendixes Appendix A Coding Information for Dari language and Algebra textbooks of AIRG . 269 Appendix B Coding Information for Dari Language and Algebra Textbooks of PDPA291 Appendix C Coding Information for Dari language and Algebra Textbooks of ISAG 301 iv List of Figures Figure 2.1: Afghanistan Multi Ethnic Population ...................................................... 54 Figure 2.2: Map of Afghanistan from Central Intelligence Agency 1979 ................... 55 Figure 4.1: Recognition of Violence in Dari Language under AIRG ....................... 113 Figure 4.2: Textbook Image (Unexploded