AID , SANCTIONS AND CIVIL SOCIETY : An analysis of the impacts of targeted sanctions on Fiji’s non-government organisations by Morgan Franciska Hanks A 120-point thesis submitted to Victoria University of Wellington, as partial fulfilment of requirements for the degree of Master of Development Studies 2011 ABSTRACT In dealing with contested regimes, international aid donors must decide whether to suspend or continue to provide development assistance to a regime considered illegitimate. Since the 1990s a general consensus has existed that conventional sanctions are largely ineffective and essentially violate human rights. Responding to this realisation, targeted or ‘smart’ sanctions emerged with the aim of minimising the impacts of sanctions on civilians, while still targeting the ruling elite. This thesis investigates smart sanctions utilised in a Pacific Island country: Fiji. Following the coups of 1987, 2000 and 2006 three of Fiji’s major aid donors, Australia, New Zealand and the European Union, imposed various levels of smart sanctions including targeted travel bans and sanctioning their aid programmes. In particular, the donors focused on redirecting funding through non-governmental organisations (NGOs) in Fiji. Within the sanctions literature a particular gap exists regarding assessment of the impacts on local NGOs. What research does exists has shown that in several cases in Africa, Asia and South America when donors have chosen to channel aid through civil society in response to lagging political reforms, this has at times done more harm than good for local NGOs. Since the imposition of smart sanctions in Fiji there has been no evaluation of how rechanneling aid through NGOs has changed the local development landscape. This research evaluates both the explicit and implicit impacts that smart sanctions imposed on Fiji have had on local NGOs. Key words: smart sanctions; Fiji; aid; civil society i ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS A very big vinaka vakalevu to all NGOs and participants interviewed in Fiji and New Zealand for sharing your thoughts and experiences. Without you, none of this research would have been possible. To my thesis supervisor, John Overton, thank you for insisting that my work at every stage was ‘Great stuff’. You have been a constant inspiration and source of positive energy throughout the last two years. Vinaka ! Particular thanks go to Professor Vijay Naidu and Asenaca Manuca at the University of the South Pacific, in Suva, for graciously welcoming me, providing a space from which to work and an academic community to belong to while away from home. Also to Kylie Anderson, for providing eight kilos worth of your own research, which was particularly invaluable as well as heavy. To the Siwatibau Family, for introducing me to Fiji and welcoming me into their home. To my Mom and Dad, for sending me countless care packages. To Dad and Lynda for your constant words of encouragement and levity. Special thanks go to my Mom who was my inspiration to continue studying. Every time I thought it was too hard, I thought of how much harder it must have been for you and was proud to have such an amazing woman in my life. Thanks Mom! To the rest of my family, in particular Jennifer, who reminded me to keep things in perspective by insisting that I could write my thesis in the car on a road trip. To my friends both near and far, for always appearing interested in my thesis, even if you weren’t. In particular, thanks to Hannah Mackintosh and Shabnam Dastgheib for your amazing editing skills. A very special thanks to the ‘Deve Girls’. Without each of you the last two years would only have been about school. Particular thanks go to Laura Barrett for being my research and travel companion and for planting your coconut tree next to mine. Finally, my warmest thanks go to Sean, who has been a constant source of support, critique and encouragement. Thank you for making me go to school in the morning, understanding when I needed to stay late at night and doing more than your fair share of the laundry. Coming home to you made it all a little easier. To everyone, Vinaka Vakalevu and Loloma Levu . ii TABLE OF CONTENTS ABSTRACT ................................................................................................................. i ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ............................................................................................... ii LIST OF FIGURES ...................................................................................................... vi LIST OF TABLES ....................................................................................................... vi ACRONYMS ............................................................................................................. vii CHAPTER ONE - INTRODUCTION , AIMS AND OBJECTIVES .............................................. 1 1.1 Introduction ............................................................................................................... 1 1.2 Sanctions, Aid and Fiji .............................................................................................. 2 1.3 Including Civil Society in the Sanctions Debate ....................................................... 3 1.4 Research Aim and Objectives ................................................................................... 4 1.5 Chapter Outline ......................................................................................................... 5 CHAPTER TWO - RESEARCH DESIGN ........................................................................... 7 2.1 Introduction ............................................................................................................... 7 2.2 Philosophical Approach to Research ......................................................................... 7 2.2.1 Critical Realism .................................................................................................. 8 2.2.2 Positionality ........................................................................................................ 9 2.3 Methodology ........................................................................................................... 10 2.3.1 Mixed-method ................................................................................................... 11 2.3.2 Case study ......................................................................................................... 12 2.3.3 Talanoa .............................................................................................................. 12 2.4 Choice of Setting and Participants .......................................................................... 13 2.5 Research Methods ................................................................................................... 15 2.5.1 Primary and Secondary Research ..................................................................... 15 2.5.2 Semi-Structured Interviews .............................................................................. 15 2.6 Ethical Considerations ............................................................................................. 16 2.6.1 Victoria University of Wellington Code of Ethics ........................................... 17 2.6.2 Research Permit ................................................................................................ 17 2.6.3 Potential Harm and Confidentiality .................................................................. 18 2.7 Limitations............................................................................................................... 19 2.7.1 Time Constraints and Participant Accessibility ................................................ 19 2.7.2 Research Fatigue ............................................................................................... 19 2.8 Summary ................................................................................................................. 20 CHAPTER THREE - AID , CIVIL SOCIETY AND SANCTIONS ............................................. 21 3.2 The Aid Landscape, 1980 - 2000 ............................................................................ 22 3.2.1 The Growing Influence of Neoliberalism ......................................................... 22 3.2.2 From the New Policy Agenda to the Good Governance Agenda ..................... 25 3.3 The New Era of Aid: 2000 - Present ....................................................................... 28 3.3.1 Theoretical Influences in the 21 st Century ........................................................ 29 3.3.2 Emerging Policies and Principles ..................................................................... 30 3.3.3 The Principle of Partnership ............................................................................. 32 3.3.4 The Role of Civil Society in the New Aid Regime .......................................... 34 iii 3.4 Conditionality, Sanctions… and NGOs?................................................................. 36 3.4.1 History ............................................................................................................... 36 3.4.2 Justifications: Answering the Call to “Do Something” .................................... 38 3.4.3 Implications: Sanctions and Civil Society ........................................................ 40 3.5 Summary ................................................................................................................. 42 CHAPTER FOUR - THE HISTORY OF AID AND CIVIL SOCIETY