Highland-lowland linkages and its implications on the livelihood of the communities in Ethiopia: the case of Bale Administrative Zone, Oromia Region, Southeast Ethiopia by GETACHEW DEMISSIE DESTA submitted in accordance with the requirements for the degree of DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY in the subject GEOGRAPHY at the UNIVERSITY OF SOUTH AFRICA SUPERVISOR: DR. MULUNEH WOLDETSADIK CO-SUPERVISOR: PROF M D NICOLAU JULY 2019 Declaration I, the undersigned, declare that “Highland-Lowland Linkages and its Implications on the Livelihoods of the Communities in Ethiopia: The Case of Bale Zone, Oromia Region” is my own original work and all materials used or quoted are acknowledged by means of complete references. Getachew Demissie Student Number: 55 76 27 35 ii Acknowledgements This thesis work comes to an end with the assistance of many individuals and offices. First and foremost, I want to extend my deepest gratitude to my thesis supervisors Dr. Muluneh Woldetsdik and Professor Melanie Desiree Nicolau for their professional guidance and comments from the beginning to the end. I also indebted to Professor C. Seethal, the previous coordinator of PhD programme in the Department of Geography, UNISA, for his qualified assistance in the initial development of the proposal. I am also grateful to Mr Henok Woldeyohannes for the patience in capturing the surveyed data into the SPSS programme. I would like to thank my department and staffs of Madda Walabu University for the role they played in the completion of this work by partly relieving me from course teaching burden supposed to be handled by me. My special thanks and appreciation should also go to the development agents of the four Rural Kebele Administrations (RKAs) that assisted and facilitated the field data collection processes, which include Abduba Golompho (Madera RKA), Eshetu Tilahun (Buria RKA), Abduljebar Ali (Chirri RKA) and Aynalem Woredework (Rira RKA). I would also like to express my gratitude to Bale zone administration, Bale zone agriculture and rural development offices, Gololcha woreda administrative office, Gololcha woreda agriculture and rural development office, Goba woreda administrative office, Goba woreda agriculture and rural development office, Sawena woreda administrative office, Sawena woreda pastoral and rural development office and Dello-Menna woreda administrative office, Dello-Menna woreda pastoral and rural development office for their all rounded cooperation and secondary day provision. iii Table of Contents Contents Page Declaration ...................................................................................................................................... ii Acknowledgements ........................................................................................................................ iii Table of Contents ........................................................................................................................... iv List of Tables ................................................................................................................................. ix List of Figures ................................................................................................................................ xi List of Plates ................................................................................................................................. xii Acronyms ..................................................................................................................................... xiii Abstract ........................................................................................................................................ xiv CHAPTER ONE ..............................................................................................................................1 INTRODUCTION ...........................................................................................................................1 1.1 Background of the Study ....................................................................................................... 1 1.2 Research Problem .................................................................................................................. 4 1.3 Research Questions ............................................................................................................... 6 1.4 Objective of the Study ........................................................................................................... 7 1.4.1 General Objective ............................................................................................................7 1.4.2 Specific objectives ...........................................................................................................7 1.5 Significance of the Study ...................................................................................................... 8 1.6 Scope of the Study................................................................................................................. 9 1.7 Limitations of the Study ........................................................................................................ 9 1.8 Thesis Organization............................................................................................................. 10 CHAPTER TWO ...........................................................................................................................12 LITERATURE REVIEW ..............................................................................................................12 2.1 Concepts, Types, Nature and Extent of Highland-lowland Linkages ................................. 12 2.1.1 Concepts of highland and lowland linkage ....................................................................12 2.1.2 Types of highland –lowland linkages ............................................................................14 2.1.3 Nature and extent of highland-lowland linkage ............................................................18 2.2 Factors Influencing Highland-Lowland Linkages ............................................................... 19 2.3 Concepts, Causes, Consequences and Resolving Strategies of Conflict ............................. 21 2.3.1 Environmental Factors ...................................................................................................22 iv 2.3.2 Socio-economic Factors ................................................................................................23 2.3.3 Political/Governance Factors .........................................................................................24 2.4 Concepts of Livelihood, Vulnerability and Coping Strategies ........................................... 28 2.4.1 Concept of Livelihood ...................................................................................................29 2.4.2 Vulnerability of the Highlanders and Lowlanders ........................................................31 2.4.3 Coping Strategies of the Highlanders and Lowlanders .................................................33 2.4.4 Determinants of Livelihood Strategies Choices ............................................................35 2.5 The Role of Highland-Lowland Linkages in Improving Livelihoods of the ...................... 41 Communities ............................................................................................................................. 41 2.6 Theoretical Framework of Highland-Lowland Linkages and its Impact on the Livelihood of Communities ......................................................................................................................... 42 2.7 Empirical Evidences ............................................................................................................ 46 2.7.1 Factors Influencing Highland-lowland Linkages ..........................................................46 2.7.2 Causes and Consequences of Conflict between Highlanders and Lowlander ...............48 2.8 Geographic Perspectives of Highland-lowland Linkage and Livelihoods .......................... 52 2.9 Conclusion ........................................................................................................................... 54 CHAPTER THREE .......................................................................................................................56 DESCRIPTION OF THE STUDY AREA ....................................................................................56 3.1 Location and Area of Bale Zone ......................................................................................... 56 3.2 Physical Characteristics....................................................................................................... 57 3.2.1 Topography ....................................................................................................................57 3.2.2 Climate...........................................................................................................................60 3.2.3 Drainage.........................................................................................................................61 3.2.4 Vegetation ......................................................................................................................64 3.3 Demographic and Socio-Economic Characteristics ............................................................ 65 3.3.1 Economic Base ..............................................................................................................67