HOUSEHOLD HAZARDOUS WASTE: DISPOSAL TO LANDFILL AS A PATHWAY TO ENVIRONMENTAL POLLUTION A Thesis Submitted to the University of London for the Degree of Doctor of Philosophy &/or Diploma of Imperial College in the Faculty of Life Sciences By Rebecca Jane Slack 2007 Centre for Environmental Policy Imperial College London South Kensington London SW7 2AZ Household hazardous waste 1 PREFACE The work contained in this Thesis presents original research undertaken by the author. Much of this work has been published in peer-reviewed journals or else submitted for publication in such. ■ Chapter 3 has been published as "Hazardous components of household waste" in Critical Reviews in Environmental Science and Technology, 34: 419-445 (2004). ■ Chapter 4 appears in the paper "Household hazardous waste in municipal landfills: contaminants in leachate" in Science of the Total Environment, 337: 119-137 (2005). ■ Chapter 5 has been presented in the manuscript "Assessing quantities and disposal routes for household hazardous products in the United Kingdom" in Environmental Science and Technology, 39: 1912-1919 (2005). The project described in Chapter 6 was conducted as a separately funded Environment Agency study. It was necessary to compile and submit a project report to the Environment Agency on completion of the work (Bonin et al. In press). The focus of Chapter 6 differs from the report and taken together offer complementary analyses of the results obtained. Chapter 6 has also been used to compile the paper "Household hazardous waste data for the UK by direct sampling" in Environmental Science and Technology, 41: 2566-2571 (2007). ■ Chapter 7 has been published as "Household hazardous waste disposal to landfill: using LandSim to model leachate migration" in the journal Environmental Pollution, 146: 501-509 (2007). 2 Four conference papers were also developed from the work outlined herein: ■ Slack, R.J., Gronow, J.R. and Voulvoulis N. (2004) Household Hazardous Waste: Establishing Sources and Disposal Routes. In: Waste 2004 - Integrated Waste Management and Pollution Control: Policy and Practice, Research and Solutions, proceedings of the Waste 2004 Conference, 28-30 September 2004, Stratford- upon-Avon, Warwickshire, UK. The Waste Conference Ltd., Coventry. Pp.801- 810. ■ Slack, R.J., Gronow, J.R. and Voulvoulis N. (2005) Hazardous Substances in Household Waste. In: Sardinia 2005 — Tenth International Waste Management and Landfill Symposium, proceedings of the Sardinia Symposium 2005, 3-7 October 2005, S. Margherita di Pula, Cagliari, Sardinia, Italy. Editors: Cossu, R. and Stegmann, R. CISA, Italy . Pp. 37. • Slack, R.J., Bonin M., Gronow, J.R. and Voulvoulis N. (2005) Quantities of Household Hazardous Waste Disposed to UK Landfills. In: Sardinia 2005 — Tenth International Waste Management and Landfill Symposium, proceedings of the Sardinia Symposium 2005, 3-7 October 2005, S. Margherita di Pula, Cagliari, Sardinia, Italy. Editors: Cossu, R. and Stegmann, R. CISA, Italy . Pp. 93. • Slack, R.J., Bound, J.P., Gronow, J.R. and Voulvoulis N. (2006). Effective quantification of HHW and implications for waste management and policy. In: CIWM 2006 — Changing the Face of Waste Management, proceedings of the Chartered Institute of Waste Management Annual Conference, 12-16 June 2006, Paignton, UK. CIWM, Peterborough, UK. Pp. 801. 3 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS There are a considerable number of people without whom this work would not have been possible. My utmost gratitude to my supervisors, Dr Nick Voulvoulis and Professor Jan Gronow, whose guidance and patience at each stage of the study was critical to its progress — thank you for helping me see the wood for the trees! Also, grateful thanks to the following people/organizations who have provided information, support and training: the Environment Agency, the National Household Hazardous Waste Forum (NHHWF) — particularly Elaine Kerrell, Pete Stevens and Roland Arnison; David Hall and Richard Lansley (Golder Associates); Anton Van Santen (formerly AEAT), Julian Parfitt (WRAP) and Haydn Jones (AEAT); Faye Dashper of Oxfordshire County Council and other local authority environmental managers; and staff/students of Imperial College, especially Peggy Zerva, Michael Bonin, Babi Adeyemi-doro, Joseph Eliahoo and Jon Bound. Thanks must also go to my sponsors, the Engineering and Physical Sciences Research Council (EPSRC) and the Environment Agency. Graduate training offered through the EPSRC has proved to be very useful whilst the Environment Agency support enabled me to discuss this work with a variety of waste experts through conference attendance. Finally, this would not have been possible but for the encouragement of my family and friends. To my parents for their unfailing support, Molly for the walks, Hannah and Rachel for the chats, Oliver for always being there and last but by no means least, Granny for the weekends by the sea — Thank You! 4 ABSTRACT Apprehension relating to chemicals used widely within the home has led to concern that the disposal of such hazardous substances into the municipal waste stream (MSW) may pose risks to the environment and human health. Commonly referred to as household hazardous waste (HHW), such waste is increasingly affected by European Union (EU) legislation which aims to reduce the amounts of individual hazardous waste streams, such as waste electrical and electronic equipment (WEEE), discarded to landfill. The risks to health and the environment from present and future HHW disposal to landfill require assessment, enabling the impact of legislation on UK disposal to be evaluated. The central aims of the thesis are therefore to improve understanding of the HHW disposal pathway in the United Kingdom (UK) and assess whether legislation is adequate to mitigate risks resulting from disposal to landfill. A review of the literature reveals the lack of consistent data regarding disposal quantities of specific HHW categories, including paint and other DIY products, garden and household pesticides, batteries, medicines, engine oil and other wastes deriving from domestic use. The amounts of HHW described in the literature are compared to quantities obtained via a questionnaire methodology and direct waste analysis. Current UK disposal regimes suggest that most HHW is discarded to landfill and yet the consequences to the contamination potential of landfill disposal remain unevaluated. The possible risks to groundwater reserves arising from HHW disposal and landfill leakage are discussed and a baseline for detailed assessment of the consequences arising from the implementation of new EU legislation is established. 5 CONTENTS Section Page Title page 1 Preface 2 Acknowledgements 4 Abstract 5 Contents 6 List of Figures 13 List of Tables 14 List of Boxes, Formulae and Footnotes 17 List of Common Abbreviations 18 Chapters: 1. Introduction 22 1.1 Introduction to waste and waste generation 22 1.2 Aims and objectives 24 1.3 Research methodology 26 1.4 Thesis structure 27 2. Regulation of Municipal and Household Hazardous Waste in the United Kingdom 31 2.1 Historical perspective 31 2.2 European Union influence 33 2.3 Waste legislation in the United Kingdom 46 2.4 Municipal and household waste 48 2.5 Household hazardous waste 52 6 Section Page 2.6 Interpretation of legislation pertaining to HHW categories 61 2.6.1 Solvents, acids & alkalis 62 2.6.2 Photochemicals 63 2.6.3 Pesticides 63 2.6.4 Fluorescent tubes and other mercury-containing waste 64 2.6.5 Discarded equipment containing chlorofluorocarbons 64 2.6.6 Discarded electrical and electronic equipment 65 2.6.7 Oil and fat 65 2.6.8 Paint, inks, adhesives and resins 66 2.6.9 Detergents containing dangerous substances 66 2.6.10 Cytotoxic and cytostatic medicines 67 2.6.11 Batteries and accumulators 67 2.6.12 Wood containing dangerous substances 68 2.6.13 Wastes not considered HHW in European legislation 68 2.7 Effects of non-waste EU legislation 70 2.8 Household hazardous waste beyond Europe 71 2.9 Summary 72 3. Hazardous Components of Household Waste: A Review 74 3.1 Groups of hazardous components 78 3.1.1 Photochemicals 80 3.1.2 Pesticides 81 3.1.3 Mercury-containing wastes 86 3.1.4 Discarded CFC-containing equipment 88 3.1.5 Non-edible oil and fat 92 7 Section Page 3.1.6 Paints, inks, resins and adhesives 95 3.1.7 Detergents 97 3.1.8 Pharmaceuticals 99 3.1.9 Batteries 103 3.1.10 Waste electrical and electronic equipment 107 3.1.11 Wood preservatives 108 3.1.12 Personal care products 111 3.1.13 Miscellaneous groups 112 3.2 Summary 114 4. Household Hazardous Waste in Municipal Landfills: Contaminants in Leachate 116 4.1 Landfills as pathways to environmental pollution 117 4.2 Landfill processes 119 4.3 Composition of landfill leachate 122 4.3.1 Organic compounds in landfill leachate 126 4.3.2 Inorganic components of leachate 142 4.4 Landfill gas 145 4.5 Summary 146 5. Assessing Quantities and Disposal Routes for Household Hazardous Products in the United Kingdom 147 5.1 Project methodology 148 5.1.1 Project format 148 5.1.2 Sampling strategy 151 5.1.3 Data analysis 155 8 Section Page 5.1.4 Limitations of survey 156 5.2 Results of the questionnaire 158 5.2.1 Socio-economic structure of survey population 158 5.2.2 Initial findings: public perception of hazards, product quantities held and preferred disposal behaviour 159 5.2.2.1 Perception 159 5.2.2.2 Quantities 159 5.2.2.3 Disposal 163 5.2.3 Further analysis 171 5.3 Sales-storage-waste pathway 175 5.4 Summary 178 6. Further Analysis of Household Hazardous Waste Composition, Quantities, Disposal Routes and Patterns of Generation 180 6.1 Methodology for the collection of HHW generation and disposal data 181 6.2 Results of the HHW collections 191 6.2.1 Participation 191 6.2.2 Waste quantities collected 194 6.2.3 Mean waste amounts per household 201 6.2.4 Disposal behaviour 206 6.2.5 Socio-demographic indicators 211 6.2.6 Socio-demographic factors and waste quantities 212 6.2.7 Extrapolation from sample to UK population 217 6.2.8 Potential pathways for disposal of HHW in the UK 226 9 Section Page 6.2.9 Estimates of purchased product 228 6.3 Further data 228 6.4 Summary 229 7.