The environmental toxicology of zinc oxide nanoparticles to the oligochaete Lumbriculus variegatus Shona Aisling O’Rourke Submitted for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy Heriot-Watt University School of Life Sciences January 2013 The copyright in this thesis is owned by the author. Any quotation from the thesis or use of any of the information contained in it must acknowledge this thesis as the source of the quotation or information. Abstract This thesis investigated the potential toxicity of zinc oxide nanoparticles (NPs) and bulk particles (both with and without organic matter (HA)) to the Californian Blackworm, Lumbriculus variegatus. The NPs and bulk particles in this thesis were characterised 133 using numerous techniques. ZnO NPs were found to be 91 ( 64) nm (median 322 (interquartile range)) and ZnO bulk particles were found to be 237 ( 165) nm (median (interquartile range)) by TEM. In the acute behavioural study (96 hour), ZnO NPs had a dose-dependent toxic effect on the behaviour of the worms up to 10mg/L whereas the bulk had no significant effect. This result, however, was mitigated by the addition of 5mg/L HA in the NP study whereas a similar addition enhanced the toxicity of the bulk particles at 5mg/L ZnO. In the chronic study (28 days), ZnO NPs and bulk particles were found to have a dose-dependent significant effect on the behaviour of the worms after 28 days, with NPs causing a significantly greater negative response than bulk particles at 12.5, 25 and 50mg/L ZnO. HA had no effect on the toxicity of either particle type in the chronic study. Acute (96 hour) oxidative stress in L. variegatus in response to ZnO NP and bulk particle (with and without 5mg/L HA) exposure was evaluated by examining the changes in glutathione (GSH) content of cells, since NPs are expected to have potential for toxicity via mechanisms such as oxidative stress. Neither ZnO NPs nor bulk particles (with and without 5mg/L HA) were found to induce significant changes in the GSH content of L. variegatus cells after 96 hours of exposure. The uptake, accumulation and depuration of ZnO NPs and bulk particles in L. variegatus over a 48 hour period of uptake and a 48 hour period of depuration were also investigated. This study found a high level of variability and it was concluded that the protocol employed was not suitable for investigating the uptake, bioaccumulation and depuration of ZnO NPs and bulk particles. Finally, histological techniques and a number of fixatives were evaluated for use with L. variegatus. Bouin’s solution was found the most suitable fixative for use with these worms, with no histological damage observed in the morphology of the worms after a 96 hour exposure to ZnO NPs and bulk particles (with and without 5mg/L HA). When considering the toxicology results from all experiments within this thesis it is concluded that ZnO NPs can cause both acute and chronic toxicity in terms of behavioural response, but do not cause acute oxidative stress in L. variegatus. Acknowledgements I would like to thank my supervisors Prof. Teresa Fernandes and Prof. Vicki Stone for giving me the opportunity to undertake this research and for the kind and great support and guidance they provided throughout my PhD. I would like to thank all my lab. colleagues and friends for being there to listen to all the triumphs and tribulations associated with doing a PhD. Thank you all for keeping me sane! Last, but not least, I would like to thank my wonderful family and boyfriend for always being there to support me in so many ways. I would not have been able to complete this PhD without them so thank you and all my love to Mom, Dad, Niamh, Liam, Granda, Noreen and Geraint. Go raibh míle maith agaibh go léir, le grá. ACADEMIC REGISTRY Research Thesis Submission Name: Shona O’Rourke School/PGI: School of Life Sciences (SLS) Version: (i.e. First, Final Degree Sought PhD Resubmission, Final) (Award and Environmental Toxicology Subject area) Declaration In accordance with the appropriate regulations I hereby submit my thesis and I declare that: 1) the thesis embodies the results of my own work and has been composed by myself 2) where appropriate, I have made acknowledgement of the work of others and have made reference to work carried out in collaboration with other persons 3) the thesis is the correct version of the thesis for submission and is the same version as any electronic versions submitted*. 4) my thesis for the award referred to, deposited in the Heriot-Watt University Library, should be made available for loan or photocopying and be available via the Institutional Repository, subject to such conditions as the Librarian may require 5) I understand that as a student of the University I am required to abide by the Regulations of the University and to conform to its discipline. * Please note that it is the responsibility of the candidate to ensure that the correct version of the thesis is submitted. Signature of Date: Candidate: Submission Submitted By (name in capitals): SHONA O’ ROURKE Signature of Individual Submitting: Date Submitted: For Completion in the Student Service Centre (SSC) Received in the SSC by (name in capitals): Method of Submission (Handed in to SSC; posted through internal/external mail): E-thesis Submitted (mandatory for final theses) Signature: Date: Table of contents Chapter 1 Introduction 1 1.1 Nano definitions 1 1.2 Nanoparticles and the environment 2 1.3 Zinc 4 1.3.1 Zinc speciation and solubility 5 1.3.2 ZnO nanoparticles and their toxicity 6 1.4 Lumbriculus variegatus 8 1.4.1 Biology and Ecology 8 1.4.2 Reproduction in L. variegatus 10 1.4.3 Use of Lumbriculus variegatus in ecotoxicological studies 11 1.5 An overview of the methodologies used in this thesis 12 1.5.1 Characterisation of ZnO nanoparticles 12 1.5.2 Medium used within this thesis 13 1.5.3 The addition of humic acid to the studies 13 1.5.4 Endpoints used within this thesis 14 1.6 Aims of this thesis 15 1.6.1 Aims by chapter 16 Chapter 2 Characterisation of engineered zinc oxide nanoparticles 17 2.1 Introduction 17 2.1.1 Characterisation at Heriot Watt University and at the 18 University of Birmingham 2.1.2 Description of characterisation techniques 19 2.1.3 Aim of DLS and zeta potential study 23 2.1.4 Aim of FENAC studies 23 2.2 Methods: 24 2.2.1 DLS study 24 2.2.2 FENAC studies 26 2.3 Results 32 2.3.1 DLS and zeta potential study 32 2.3.2 Size Measurement Results 38 i 2.3.3 FENAC studies 44 2.3.4 Summary of results 55 2.4 Discussion 58 2.4.1 DLS Study 58 2.4.2 FENAC Studies 61 2.4.3 Comparison of results obtained at Heriot Watt University 63 and at FENAC Chapter 3 Acute Toxicity Testing: Investigation of the effects of ZnO 65 nanoparticles and bulk particles on the behaviour of Lumbriculus variegatus. 3.1 Introduction 65 3.1.1 The nervous system and functions of locomotor 65 behaviours in Lumbriculus variegatus 3.1.2 Aims of the study 56 3.2 Methods 67 3.2.1 United States Environmental Protection Agency (USEPA) 67 medium 3.2.2 Maintenance of the Lumbriculus variegatus cultures 67 3.2.3 Equipment 68 3.2.4 Physiological synchronisation of worms prior to testing 69 3.2.5 ZnO ecotoxicity testing – preliminary work 69 3.2.6 Pilot study: Assessing the effect of particle exposure on 70 fed vs. not fed worms 3.2.7 Nanoparticle and bulk studies 72 3.2.8 Positive control studies 73 3.3 Results 74 3.3.1 Experimental design for each study 74 3.3.2 Pilot study: Fed vs. not fed worms 74 3.3.3 Positive Control Studies 77 3.3.4 Nanoparticle and bulk studies, with and without HA 80 3.4 Discussion 88 3.4.1 Feeding worms during physiological synchronisation 88 ii 3.4.2 Positive control tests 89 3.4.3 Acute ZnO NP toxicity vs. acute ZnO bulk particle 90 toxicity 3.5 Summary of this study 93 Chapter 4 Acute Toxicity Testing: Investigation of the potential for ZnO 94 nanoparticles to induce oxidative stress in Lumbriculus variegatus. 4.1 Introduction 94 4.1.1 Oxidative stress and antioxidant defences 94 4.1.2 Oxidative stress and nanoparticles 96 4.1.3 Oxidative stress and ZnO nanoparticles 97 4.1.4 Oxidative stress and L. variegatus 98 4.1.5 Aims of this study 99 4.2 Methods 100 4.2.1 Study 1: Pilot study using adapted OPT protocol 101 4.2.2 Study 2: Pilot study with new Promega kit 103 4.2.3 Study 3: Full study with new Promega kit 104 4.3 Results 105 4.3.1 Experimental design 105 4.3.2 Studies 1: Pilot study using adapted protocol 106 4.3.3 Study 2: Pilot study with new Promega kit 107 4.3.4 Study 3: Full study with new Promega kit 108 4.4 Discussion: 114 4.4.1 Protocols 114 4.4.2 Pilot Study 114 4.4.3 Oxidative stress study 115 4.5 Summary of this study 116 Chapter 5 Chronic Toxicity Testing: Investigation of the effects of ZnO 117 nanoparticles and bulk particles on the behaviour of Lumbriculus variegatus. 5.1 Introduction: 117 5.1.1 Sediment toxicology: 117 iii 5.1.2 Use of Lumbriculus variegatus in sediment toxicity 118 studies 5.1.3 Metals in sediments 119 5.1.4 Aims of the study 120 5.2 Materials and Methods 121 5.2.1 Study Preparation 121 5.2.2 Study 1: Adapted sediment study 121 5.2.3 Study 2: OECD sediment study 123 5.2.4 Study 3: Paper sediment study 125 5.2.5 Statistical analyses 125 5.3 Results: 126 5.3.1 Study 1: Adapted sediment study 126 5.3.2 Study 2: OECD sediment study 128 5.3.3 Study 3: Paper sediment study 128 5.4 Discussion 137 5.4.1 Artificial sediment studies 137 5.4.2 Paper sediment study 139 5.5 Summary of this study 140 Chapter 6 Depuration Study: Investigation of the uptake and depuration of 141 ZnO nanoparticles and bulk particles in Lumbriculus variegatus.