AN EXPLORATION OF BODY IMAGE AND PSYCHOLOGICAL WELL-BEING AMONG AGING AFRICAN AMERICAN AND EUROPEAN AMERICAN WOMEN by Natalie Jane Sabik A dissertation submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy (Psychology and Women’s Studies) in The University of Michigan 2012 Doctoral Committee: Professor Elizabeth Ruth Cole, Chair Professor Deborah Keller-Cohen Professor Jacqui Smith Professor Lucretia Monique Ward _______________________© Natalie Jane Sabik_________________________ All rights reserved 2012 To my parents, who have always encouraged me, inspired me, and gave me their support. ii ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS I would not have been able to complete this dissertation without the love and support of my family. Justin, you have been with me through everything, from the moment I decided I wanted to earn my Ph.D. and took on my first research project, and you’ve always known I could finish what I started. From you, I have learned patience, and your generosity and kindness have given me the strength and support to continue to work towards my professional goals. I am so glad you’ve chosen to take this path with me, and that you have been so selfless in your decisions, including making the move to Ann Arbor with me. Mom, I would never have had the guts to sets my sights so high if I hadn’t had you as my role model. You work harder than anyone I know, and watching you continue to challenge yourself personally and professionally has been a gift. I want to be like you when I grow up. Dad, you have always had a knack for helping me see things clearly, and I love how you always ask me about what I’m working on, and really listen when I tell you all the details. I’ve always known you’ve had my back, and it means the world to me. And to Lindsay and Olivia, I never laugh so hard as I do with you, and I’m so proud of you both. I also would never have dreamt of completing this project without the guidance and support, both personally and professionally, from Dr. Elizabeth Cole. I never imagined how much I would learn from you, and I look up to you in so many ways. When describing my graduate school experience, I often say I feel as though I won the iii adviser lottery. Your insight into the complexity of this work often amazes me, and I truly hope that one day my work will be on par with yours. I also need to acknowledge the support of my other mentors, Dr. Tracy Tylka and Dr. Alyssa Zucker. Tracy, you led me step by step through my first project, and I was immediately hooked. Every conversation we’ve had about research since then has made me more excited to get back to work. Alyssa, your advice and humor made my time at George Washington so enjoyable, and still feel so lucky you were there to guide me through my master’s degree. I also owe you a great debt for introducing me to Liz, and for encouraging me to come to University of Michigan. You were right! I can’t imagine having been anywhere else for this part of my life. Thank you to my dissertation committee: Dr. Monique Ward, Deborah Keller- Cohen, and Jacqui Smith. The feedback you provided on my research plans was invaluable. You helped me focus my research questions, and certainly made this project manageable. Your ideas and suggestions have given me so many ideas, and I plan to take on all of the other research questions I have, all in good time. iv TABLE OF CONTENTS DEDICATION…………………………………………………………………………..ii ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS…………………………………………………………….iii LIST OF TABLES………………………………………………………………...…...vii LIST OF FIGURES…………………………………………………………………….ix LIST OF APPENDICES…………………………………………………………….….x ABSTRACT……………………………………………………………………………...xi CHAPTER I. OVERVIEW………………………..........................................................1 II. LITERATURE REVIEW Theories of Aging.………………………………….………....…3 Body Image and Aging……………………………………...…...7 Ethnic Differences in Body Image, Aging, and Mental Health…22 Current Study……………………………………………............26 III. METHODS AND RESULTS Overview………………………………………………..………30 Study I Overview……………………………………………..….31 Method………………………………………………..…32 Results…………………………………………….….….38 v Discussion……………………………………….………50 Study II Overview………………………………………….…….60 Method…………………………………………….……62 Results…………………………………………….…….64 Discussion………………………………………………70 Study III Overview……………………………………………….79 Method…………………………………………………81 Results………………………………………………….84 Discussion……………………………………...………90 IV. GENERAL DISCUSSION General Discussion…………………………...…………..........95 Ethnicity, Aging, and Body Concerns…………………………98 Broader Implications………………………….....…….............104 Limitations and Future Directions……………...………….......107 Conclusion……………………………………………………..112 APPENDICES……………..………..………………………………...…………..........114 REFERENCES…………….…………...……………………………...………….........121 vi LIST OF TABLES Table 3.1 Demographic Information………………………………………………………….35 3.2 Ethnic Comparisons for Body Satisfaction, Importance, and Weighted Satisfaction Items on the Cosmetic Appearance Subscale ………………….... 40 3.3 Ethnic Comparisons for Body Satisfaction, Importance, and Weighted Satisfaction Items on the Bodily Function and Appearance Subscale ….……..41 3.4 Tests of Invariance for Body Satisfaction Measurements…..………………….….47 3.5 Partial Correlations between Body Perception Subscales, BMI, and Subjective Age..………………………………………………………….….…48 3.6 Regression Analysis Summary for Demographic Variables Predicting Perceptions of Bodily Function and Appearance………………………………49 3.7 Regression Analysis Summary for Demographic Variables Predicting Perceptions of Cosmetic Appearance……………..……………………………49 3.8 Ethnic Comparisons for BMI, Subjective Age, Feminine Traits, Appearance Comparison, and Body Perception Subscales….………….……...64 3.9 Correlations between Subjective Age, Appearance Comparison, and Body Perception Subscales ……………………………………………….….………66 3.10 Regression Analysis Summary for Variables Predicting Satisfaction with Perceptions of Bodily Function and Appearance…………….....……………...68 3.11 Regression Analysis Summary for Variables Predicting Perceptions of Cosmetic Appearance………….....…………………………………………….70 3.12 Means, Standard Deviations, and Correlations between Body Perception Subscales, Social Support and Depression Controlling for BMI and Age for African American Women ..……………………………………...86 3.13 Means, Standard Deviations, and Correlations between Body Perception Subscales, Social Support and Depression Controlling for BMI and Age for European American Women …….…..…………………………...86 vii 3.14 Regression Analysis Summary for Variables Predicting Depression among African American women………………....……….…………………...87 3.15 Regression Analysis Summary for Variables Predicting Depression among European American women……………………………..……………...89 viii LIST OF FIGURES Figure 2.1 Proposed Model of Theorized Predictor and Outcome Variables Associated with Body Perceptions …………………………………………..28 3.1 Factorial Structure Factor Loadings for Weighted Body Satisfaction Items…….43 3.2 The Interaction between Feminine Traits and Appearance Comparison on Perceptions of Bodily Function and Appearance among European American Women……………………………………………………………69 3.3 Effect of Perceptions of Bodily Function and Appearance on Depression among European American Women…………………………………………90 ix LIST OF APPENDICES Appendix A Body Satisfaction and Importance measure……………………………………….. 114 B Physical Appearance Comparison scale…………………………………………….115 C Bem Sex Role Inventory………………………………………………………….....116 D Social Engagement scale…………………………………………………………....117 E Social Support scale ………………………………………………………….……..118 F Geriatric Depression scale………………………………………………….………..119 G CES-D Depression scale…………………………………………………………….120 x ABSTRACT There is a large literature on the association between body image and women’s mental and physical health. However, this work has focused on young women’s appearance concerns. For older women, body concerns may center on age-related changes in both appearance and functioning. In this dissertation, I draw upon theories of aging and body image to theorize predictors and outcomes associated with older women’s body perceptions; this model is tested in three studies using data from two samples of community-based women (African American and European American) aged 65 and older. Study one explored how women rated their satisfaction with particular features of the body, and the importance they attributed to these features. Two subscales were identified — perceptions of bodily function and appearance, and perceptions of cosmetic appearance— and a confirmatory factor analysis showed there were no significant differences in the factor structure between the two ethnic groups. Study two showed that femininity was unrelated to body perceptions for African American women, but moderated the relationship between social comparison and perceptions of bodily satisfaction and appearance for European American women. For European American women, engaging in social comparison was associated with more positive body esteem, while the opposite pattern emerged for the African American women. Study three showed that for both ethnic groups, bodily function and appearance was negatively associated with depression. However, depression was unrelated to perceptions of xi cosmetic appearance. For European American women, social engagement mediated the relationship between perceptions of bodily function and appearance and depression. Findings suggest that older women are primarily concerned with aspects of the body related to functionality, and significant variations emerged