REVISTA DE IBEROAMERICANA DE PSICOLOGÍA DEL EJERCICIO Y EL DEPORTE Vol. 6, nº 2, pp. 251-268 ISSN: 1886-8576 CURRENT DIRECTIONS IN SOCIAL INFLUENCE: PARENTS AND PEERS Julie A. Partridge Southern Illinois University Carbondale ABSTRACT: Social influence in sport can result from a number of possible sources including parents, peers, siblings, coaches, and fans. Two of the most commonly studied social influences are parents and peers. Parental influence may occur through several different mechanisms, and may impact children in both positive and negative ways (e.g., burnout, anxiety, enjoyment). Peers are also an important source of social influence and have been found to have a significant impact on psychosocial outcomes in sport. This article reviews previous findings in these two areas of social influence in sport and provides an understanding of current and trends in has become a more popular topic in sport psychology in recent years. KEYWORDS: Social influence, sport socialization, parental influence, peer influence. TENDENCIAS ACTUALES EN LA INFLUENCIA SOCIAL: PADRES E IGUALES RESUMEN: La influencia social en el deporte puede proceder de diferentes fuentes, que pue - den incluir a los padres, los iguales, los hermanos, los entrenadores y lo seguidores. Dos de las influencias sociales que han sido más estudiadas son los padres y los iguales. La influencia de los padres se puede dar a través de varios mecanismos y puede tener un impacto en los niños tanto negativo como positivo (por ejemplo, burnout, ansiedad, diversión). Los iguales también pueden suponer una influencia social importante y se ha detectado que tienen un impacto significativo en los resultados de carácter psicosocial en el deporte. Este artículo examina los resultados 251 Julie A. Partridge encontrados en estas dos áreas de influencia social en el deporte y proporciona una perspectiva contemporánea sobre un campo que atrae mucha atención hoy en día. PALABRAS CLAVE: Influencia social; Socialización en el deporte; Influencia de los padres; Influencia de los compañeros. TENDÊNCIAS ACTUAIS NA INFLUÊNCIA SOCIAL: OS PAIS E OS COLEGAS RESUMO: A influência social no desporto pode ser exercida por várias fontes possíveis, incluindo pais, colegas, irmãos, treinadores e adeptos. Duas das influências sociais mais frequen - temente estudadas são as exercidas pelos pais e pelos colegas. A influência parental pode ocorrer através de vários mecanismos diferentes e pode afetar as crianças tanto no sentido positivo como negativo (e.g., burnout, ansiedade, prazer). Os colegas são também uma importante fonte de influência social, tendo vindo a ser verificado o seu impacto significativo nos resultados psicos - sociais no desporto. Este artigo revê os resultados encontrados nestas duas áreas de influência social no desporto e fornece uma visão compreensiva sobre o atual conhecimento e tendências de um tópico que se tornou muito popular na psicologia do desporto nos últimos anos. PALAVRAS-CHAVE : Influência social; socialização do esporte, Influência dos país; Influência Sport is typically considered to be a in combination with one’s personal char - social endeavor. The presence of signif - acteristics, and is also consistent with icant others (e.g., parents, friends, sib - Bronfenbrenner’s (1979, 1993) lings, officials, fans, teammates) may Ecological Systems Theory assertions have a significant influence on the sport that behavior is reflective of an interac - experience. The purpose of this article tion between a person’s environment is to summarize current knowledge and their developmental status. Since regarding selected forms of social influ - parents and peers have particular impor - ence, and to discuss how these trends tance to individuals as they move inform future directions in North through developmental stages, a majori - American sport psychology. This article ty of social influence research has will focus primarily on two of the most focused on parents, although peer influ - commonly studied forms of social influ - ence research has more recently gained ence in sport: parental and peer influ - popularity (Partridge, Brustad, & Babkes ence. This focus on these two particular Stellino, 2008). Both groups have been types of social influence is reflective of found to have a significant impact on Lewin’s (1934) conceptualizations of the psychosocial outcomes (e.g., motivation, importance of an individual’s social anxiety, enjoyment, attraction to physical environment in contributing to behavior activity). Both parent and peer influence 252 Revista Iberoamericana de Psicología del Ejercicio y el Deporte. Vol. 6, nº 2 (2011) Current directions in social influence: parents and peers research has thus far focused on younger value theory (Eccles, 1993; Eccles athletes (i.e., children and adolescents); (Parsons) et al., 1983), which suggests therefore, this article reflects these that parents facilitate their children’s developmental trends. sport and physical activity behaviors through several mechanisms, including Parental Influence parental beliefs of the relative value of The influence of parents on children various achievement domains, parental and adolescents’ sport experience has expectancies for a child’s future levels of been a popular topic in sport psycholo - success in an activity, gender-related gy for several years. Parents are consid - stereotypes about activities, and the ered to be critical socializing agents as child’s motivation to maintain their par - they are primarily responsible for social - ticipation in various activities. Existing izing children into sport and physical research has found support for Eccles’ activity during the early part of their theory in the sport domain, particularly development and have been found to the link between parental expectancies have the greatest influence on children’s and their child’s expectancies for the perceptions of sport competence, par - child’s future success in sport. Parental ticularly in childhood (Horn & Weiss, beliefs about competence have been 1991). Parents may provide opportuni - linked to the child’s own perceived com - ties and means of support for their chil - petence (Babkes & Weiss, 1999; dren in sport, including paying for les - Fredricks & Eccles, 2002). These rela - sons and equipment, providing trans - tionships have may be maintained even portation, giving emotional sup - across long periods of time. A longitu - port/competence information, and indi - dinal study conducted in France by Bois, cating which activities are the most val - Sarrazin, Brustad, Trouilloud, and Cury ued or important. Thus, the importance (2002) found that mothers’ perceptions of parents in the sport experience has of their child’s physical competence pre - the potential to have a significant impact dicted their child’s own perceived physi - on psychosocial outcomes such as moti - cal competence one year later, independ - vation, enjoyment, and anxiety (Babkes ently of the child’s initial level of per - Stellino, Partridge, & Moore, 2012; ceived competence and actual compe - Brustad, Babkes, & Smith, 2001). tence on physical skill tests. In order to explain how parents influence their children in sport, several Parental Influence on Emotional theoretical models have been utilized to Outcomes in Sport explain the influence that parents have Parents have been found to be an impor - on their children’s sport and physical tant source of both positive and nega - activity behaviors (Partridge, Brustad, & tive emotional outcomes (both positive Babkes Stellino, 2008). The most com - and negative) for sport participants. It is monly utilized is Eccles’ expectancy- important to note that there are many Revista Iberoamericana de Psicología del Ejercicio y el Deporte. Vol. 6, nº 2 (2011) 253 Julie A. Partridge ways that a parent’s interactions with his tor that may impact levels of enjoyment or her child may impact that child’s sport for young athletes (McCarthy & Jones, experience (Bois, Lalanne, & Delforge, 2007; McCarthy, Jones, & Clark-Carter, 2009). Parental influence may occur 2008). through a variety of different types of Parental influence leading to negative out - interactions, such as parental pressure comes. Conversely, parental influence may (e.g., a parent “pushes” their child to also encourage negative emotional participate and/or win in sport, or par - responses in sport participants. ents may base their level/type of affec - Research has indicated that young ath - tion upon a specific sport outcome). letes who are concerned about receiving There are also forms of parental influ - negative evaluations from parents report ence that are based specifically upon the higher levels of stress and anxiety child’s perception of the parent’s actions (Babkes & Weiss, 1999; Brustad, 1988; related to their sport experience. These Brustad & Weiss, 1987; Lewthwaite & perceptions may include perceived Scanlan, 1989; Passer, 1983). Bois et al. parental expectations (i.e., the child’s (2009) investigated another form of perception of what the parent expects influence, parental presence, in adoles - of them), perceived parental importance cent basketball and tennis players and (i.e., the degree to which it is important found that when both parents were pres - for the parents that the child perform ent for competition, there was higher well in sport), and perceived parental pre-competitive anxiety for all partici - involvement (i.e., the extent to which a pants, except for male tennis players. child perceives that a parent is invested