Contents Preface xxiii Abbreviations and Acronyms xxvii Acknowledgments xxxiii Foreword xxxvii part I Why 1 chapter 1 Foundations 3 A. Purposes 5 1. Protection of Civilians and Others Hors de Combat 7 Constitutional Review of Additional Protocol II 8 2. Minimize Unnecessary Suff ering 9 3. Mission Fulfi llment 10 B. Key Sources of LOAC 11 1. Treaties 11 2. Customary International Law 13 David J. Bederman, International Law Frameworks 13 C. Jus ad Bellum vs. Jus in Bello 16 1. Jus ad Bellum 16 2. Jus ad Bellum in an Age of Counterterrorism 21 3. Separation of Jus ad Bellum and Jus in Bello 23 Prosecutor v. Fofana and Kondewa 25 Questions for Discussion 27 xi xii Contents D. Intersection with and Distinction from Human Rights Law 30 Th eodor Meron, Th e Humanization of Humanitarian Law 30 Legality of the Th reat or Use of Nuclear Weapons 32 Fourth Periodic Report of the United States of America to the United Nations Committee on Human Rights Concerning the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights 34 Questions for Discussion 37 chapter 2 Basic Principles 39 Jean Pictet, Development and Principles of International Humanitarian Law 39 A. Military Necessity 40 Th e United States of America v. Wilhelm List et al. (Th e Hostages Trial) 42 Questions for Discussion 44 B. Humanity 45 Questions for Discussion 47 C. Distinction 48 Legality of the Th reat or Use of Nuclear Weapons 50 Constitutional Review of Additional Protocol II 52 Questions for Discussion 53 D. Proportionality 56 Questions for Discussion 59 chapter 3 Historical Development of LOAC 61 A. Antiquity Th rough the Code of Chivalry 63 1. In the Beginning 63 2. Th e Middle Ages 65 3. Early Modern Times 67 B. Lieber Code and Solferino 68 William Howard Russell, Dispatch to the Times 69 C. From the Hague to World War II 73 D. Th e Geneva Conventions, the Additional Protocols, and Other Post-World War II Developments 78 Commentary to the Fourth Geneva Convention 80 Contents xiii part II What and When 85 chapter 4 What Is Armed Conflict? 87 A. Geneva Conventions Framework 87 Questions for Discussion 91 B. Defi ning Armed Confl ict 91 1. Abandoning Old Concepts of War 92 Th e Prize Cases 92 U.S. v. Plenty Horses 94 Questions for Discussion 96 2. Modern Defi nition of Armed Confl ict 97 Prosecutor v. Tadić 97 a. International Armed Confl ict 100 U.S. v. Noriega 101 U.S. v. Prosperi 102 Questions for Discussion 107 b. Non-International Armed Confl ict 108 i. Common Article 3 108 Abella v. Argentina (La Tablada) 110 Prosecutor v. Tadić 114 Questions for Discussion 116 Prosecutor v. Fatmir Limaj 117 ii. Additional Protocol II 123 Prosecutor v. Jean-Paul Akayesu 124 Ministre public and Centre pour l’égalité des chances et la lutte contre le racism v. C . et B . 125 Questions for Discussion 127 C. Counterterrorism as Armed Confl ict? 131 1. Determining the Applicable Law 132 Response of the Government of the United States of America to the letter from Special Rapporteur on Extrajudicial, Summary or Arbitrary Executions 132 Questions for Discussion 134 2. Identifying Confl ict: When, Where, and for How Long? 136 Questions for Discussion 140 D. Cyber Operations as Armed Confl ict? 141 Questions for Discussion 144 xiv Contents chapter 5 Classifying Conflicts 147 A. Distinguishing and Transitioning Between Internal and International Armed Confl ict 147 1. Foreign State Involvement in a Non-International Armed Confl ict 152 Prosecutor v. Tadić 153 Questions for Discussion 157 2. Extraterritorial Force Against Non-State Armed Groups 159 Questions for Discussion 162 3. Complex Confl icts 163 Prosecutor v. Th omas Lubanga Dyilo 164 Questions for Discussion 169 4. Special Agreements 170 Prosecutor v. Tadić 171 Erin D. Mooney, Presence, Ergo Protection? UNPROFOR, UNHCR and the ICRC in Croatia and Bosnia and Herzegovina 172 Questions for Discussion 173 B. Classifying Global Confl ict with Terrorist Groups 174 Memorandum for Alberto R. Gonzales, Counsel to the President, and William J. Haynes II, General Counsel of the Department of Defense 174 Memorandum from William H. Taft , State Department Legal Advisor 176 Hamdan v. Rumsfeld 177 Questions for Discussion 180 chapter 6 The Law of Belligerent Occupation 185 A. Determining the Existence of an Occupation 188 Armed Activities on the Territory of the Congo 188 Independent International Fact-Finding Mission on the Confl ict in Georgia 193 Questions for Discussion 196 Al-Bassiouni v. Prime Minister of Israel 198 Disengaged Occupiers: Th e Legal Status of Gaza 200 Questions for Discussion 201 B. Th e Rights and Duties of the Occupying Power 202 1. Protection of Civilians 203 Situation of Human Rights in the Temporarily Occupied Autonomous Republic of Crimea and City of Sevastopol (Ukraine) 204 Contents xv Prosecutor v. Naletilić and Martinović 208 Questions for Discussion 210 2. Property Interests and Protections 211 Central Front—Ethiopia’s Claim 2, Partial Award 212 Questions for Discussion 213 3. Use of Force and Maintaining Public Order and Security 214 Ajuri v. IDF Commander in the West Bank 218 Questions for Discussion 224 C. Termination of Occupation 226 Questions for Discussion 229 part III Who 231 chapter 7 Combatants 233 A. Defi nition and Classifi cation 233 1. Combatant Status and the Four-Part Test 234 2. Classifi cations in Practice 237 Questions for Discussion 240 a. Members of Regular Armed Forces 240 Ex parte Quirin 240 Questions for Discussion 244 b. Militia and Irregular Fighters 246 Th e United States of America v. Wilhelm List et al. (Th e Hostages Trial) 247 United States v. Otto Ohlendorf et al. (Einsatzgruppen Case) 248 Military Prosecutor v. Omar Mahmud Kassem and Others 250 Questions for Discussion 253 George S. Prugh, Vietnam Studies: Law at War: Vietnam 1964-1973 253 Questions for Discussion 257 c. Article 44 of Additional Protocol I 259 Questions for Discussion 263 d. Medical and Religious Personnel 264 Questions for Discussion 266 B. Combatant Privileges and Protections 266 1. Combatant Immunity 266 xvi Contents U.S. v. John Walker Lindh 267 Questions for Discussion 271 2. Protection for Wounded and Hors de Combat 272 Will Payne and Andrew Dagnell, Incredible Story of the Falklands War Hospital that Treated Victims from Both Side Of Confl ict 273 Questions for Discussion 274 3. Respect for the Dead 276 Questions for Discussion 277 C. Detention in International Armed Confl ict: Prisoners of War 279 1. Treatment and Protection of POWs 280 Prisoners of War — Eritrea’s Claim 17 281 Questions for Discussion 287 2. Denial of Quarter 290 Trial of Major Henry Wirz 292 Questions for Discussion 295 3. Protecting Powers and Monitoring Mechanisms 296 Th e Neutral Intermediary Role of the ICRC: At the Heart of Humanitarian Action 298 4. Trial and Punishment of POWs 299 Questions for Discussion 301 5. Repatriation 302 Questions for Discussion 304 chapter 8 Civilians 305 Commentary to the Fourth Geneva Convention 306 A. Treaty Basics: Defi nitions and Framework for Protection 308 1. Defi nition of Civilian 311 2. Protected Persons 314 a. “In the Hands of” 315 Prosecutor v. Rajić 315 b. Nationality 317 Prosecutor v. Tadić 317 Prosecutor v. Delalić 319 Questions for Discussion 322 B. Are Th ey Civilians? 323 1. Peacekeepers 323 Prosecutor v. Sesay, Kallon and Gbao (RUF Case) 323 Questions for Discussion 325 2. Contractors 326 Contents xvii Th e Montreux Document: On Pertinent International Legal Obligations and Good Practices for States Related to Operations of Private Military and Security Companies During Armed Confl ict 328 Questions for Discussion 328 3. Police 331 Th e Operation in Gaza: Factual and Legal Aspects 331 Human Rights in Palestine and Other Occupied Arab Territories: Report of the U.N. Fact-Finding Mission on the Gaza Confl ict (Goldstone Report) 333 Questions for Discussion 337 C. Civilians and the Conduct of Hostilities 338 1. Prohibition Against Attacks on Civilians 338 United States v. William L. Calley, Jr 339 Prosecutor v. Galić 343 Prosecutor v. Kupreškić 348 Questions for Discussion 350 2. Obligations to Protect Civilians 351 Adalah—Th e Legal Center for Arab Minority Rights in Israel v. Th e Minister of Defense 352 Questions for Discussion 357 Th e Goat Herders 358 Questions for Discussion 360 3. Direct Participation in Hostilities 361 Abella v. Argentina (La Tablada) 363 Public Committee Against Torture in Israel v. Gov’t of Israel 363 Interpretive Guidance on the Notion of Direct Participation in Hostilities under International Humanitarian Law 368 Questions for Discussion 378 D. Detention of Civilians 385 Case of Hassan v. United Kingdom 388 Prosecutor v. Delalić 391 Questions for Discussion 395 E. Humanitarian Assistance 395 Questions for Discussion 397 chapter 9 Battlefield Status and Detention in Non-International Armed Conflict 399 A. Distinction in NIAC — Identifying Parties to the Confl ict 400 1. Government Forces 401 2. Opposition Forces 403 a. Dissident Armed Forces 404 xviii Contents b. Organized Armed Groups 404 Gherebi v. Obama 405 Interpretive Guidance on the Notion of Direct Participation in Hostilities under International Humanitarian Law 408 Department of Defense Law of War Manual 411 Questions for Discussion 412 c. Enemy Combatants, Unprivileged Belligerents, or . ? 414 Al-Marri v. Pucciarelli 418 Anonymous v. State of Israel 427 Questions for Discussion 430 B. Detention Authority in NIAC 434 Hamdi v. Rumsfeld 435 Serdar Mohammed v. Ministry of Defence 437 Questions for Discussion 443 C. Procedures and Standards for Detention in NIAC 444 Jelena Pejic, Procedural Principles and Safeguards for Internment/Administrative Detention in Armed Confl ict and Other Situations of Violence 447 Questions for Discussion 449 part IV How 453 chapter 10 Identifying Targets: Legitimate Targets and Protected Objects 455 Independent International Fact-Finding Mission on the Confl ict in Georgia 458 A.