THE SYMBOLIC RAPE OF REPRESENTATION: A RHETORICAL ANALYSIS OF BLACK MUSICAL EXPRESSION ON BILLBOARD'S HOT 100 CHARTS Richard Sheldon Koonce A Dissertation Submitted to the Graduate College of Bowling Green State University in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY December 2006 Committee: John Makay, Advisor William Coggin Graduate Faculty Representative Lynda Dee Dixon Radhika Gajjala ii ABSTRACT John J. Makay, Advisor The purpose of this study is to use rhetorical criticism as a means of examining how Blacks are depicted in the lyrics of popular songs, particularly hip-hop music. This study provides a rhetorical analysis of 40 popular songs on Billboard’s Hot 100 Singles Charts from 1999 to 2006. The songs were selected from the Billboard charts, which were accessible to me as a paid subscriber of Napster. The rhetorical analysis of these songs will be bolstered through the use of Black feminist/critical theories. This study will extend previous research regarding the rhetoric of song. It also will identify some of the shared themes in music produced by Blacks, particularly the genre commonly referred to as hip-hop music. This analysis builds upon the idea that the majority of hip-hop music produced and performed by Black recording artists reinforces racial stereotypes, and thus, hegemony. The study supports the concept of which bell hooks (1981) frequently refers to as white supremacist capitalist patriarchy and what Hill-Collins (2000) refers to as the hegemonic domain. The analysis also provides a framework for analyzing the themes of popular songs across genres. The genres ultimately are viewed through the gaze of race and gender because Black male recording artists perform the majority of hip-hop songs. Gender is central to this issue because much of the lyrical content of their songs reveals misogynist themes. Many of the songs performed by primarily White artists who represent other popular genres including rock, country and pop music, however, contain far fewer misogynist or nihilistic themes. On the contrary, their songs contain more themes considered life-redeeming. Although hip-hop music can be viewed as a site of resistance, the current form of the genre dominating the charts is not likely to lead to the empowerment of the dispossessed in society. iii Isn’t it to be expected that a national culture that reifies mediocrity, sensation and flashiness over skill and excellence in everything from movies to television to literature and music generally would integrate [forms of black expressions] on less-than-ideal terms? From Imani Perry’s Prophets of the Hood: Politics and Poetics in Hip Hop (2004). iv DEDICATIONS This dissertation is dedicated to my mother for her gift of wisdom; to my son who helped me realize the error of my ways and the selfishness of my behavior through the struggles he encountered. Unfortunately, this realization came at a point in life when it was too late to deter him from making a few of the same mistakes that I once made in life. It is not too late, however, for my son to turn toward the light in his quest for a more empowering definition of manhood. More importantly, this dissertation is dedicated to the countless number of anguished souls of Black people whose lives are shaped daily by what appear to be daunting circumstances that impede our collective struggle for self-love and a positive self-image. Far too many are negatively influenced by the perpetual rhetoric that is cloaked in television sitcoms, buffoonish reality shows, crime news broadcasts, and music that blatantly announces to the world that Black people are a problem. This analysis is dedicated to all people, regardless of race, class, gender or religion who share a common vision to reach for the higher ground by teaching all children about the power of love, compassion, respect and unity. Finally, this is dedicated to all artists who pursue that kind of vision with unparalleled passion. They have given me the strength to write this analysis. They also have given me the power to keep reaching and teaching. In the words of the incomparable Stevie Wonder, “Gonna keep on tryin’ until I reach the higher ground.” Words from Stevie Wonder’s song “Higher Ground” on Innervisions (Motown, 1973). v ACKNOWLEDGMENTS I must acknowledge the many scholars and cultural critics who claim hip-hop music is merely a reflection of the overall decline in morals and values in society. This dissertation was born from the need to more closely examine that belief. If that statement is true today, it also would seem to suggest that such angst, nihilism and despair should be apparent in some of the most popular music performed by White artists and others representing various music genres as well. This work stresses the importance of art to the overall development of human beings in finding meaning in life and seeking truth about the beauty and cultures of all people. I also want to thank the members of my dissertation committee, which included Dr. John J. Makay, Dr. Lynda Dee Dixon, Dr. Radhika Gajjala and Dr. William Coggin. Special thanks go to Dr. Makay and Dr. Dixon for their guidance regarding rhetorical criticism, and more specifically, the rhetoric of song. v TABLE OF CONTENTS Page CHAPTER ONE: INTRODUCTION…………………………………………………................1 Introduction…………...............................................................…………………….…....1 Rationale……. ...........................................................................................................……2 Research Questions………………………………………………………………....……3 Review of Pertinent Literature…………………………………………………….......…4 The Rhetoric of Song………………………………………………………….…………7 Black Feminist Criticism and Critical Theory………………………………………….14 Key Terms and Definitions……………………………………………………………..20 Method and Research Procedures…………………………………………………..…..27 Organization of the Study………………………………………………………………31 CHAPTER TWO: A RHETORIC OF NIHILISM……………………………………………..32 Interpreting the Rhetoric of Billboard’s Top 10 Songs for Winter 1999…………………….32 “Do Wop (That Thing) by Lauryn Hill (Ruffhouse/Columbia, 1998)…………………33 “Have You Ever” by Brandy (Atlantic Records, 1998)…………………………….….34 “Nobody’s Supposed To Be Here” by Deborah Cox (Arista, 1998)……………….….37 “Believe” by Cher (Warner Music, 1998)…..…………………………………………37 “Angel” by Sarah McLachlan………………………………………………………….39 Interpreting the Rhetoric of Billboard’s Top 10 Songs for Spring 2000……………..….…..41 “Thong Song” by Sisqo (Def Soul, 1999)……………………………………………..41 “Say My Name” by Destiny’s Child (Columbia, 1999)……………………………….42 vi “Maria, Maria” by Carlos Santana (Arista, 1999)…………………………………..43 “Breathe” by Faith Hill (Warner Brothers, 1999)…………………………………..44 “I Try” by Macy Gray (Epic, 1999)………………………………………………...44 Interpreting the Rhetoric of Billboard’s Top 10 Songs for Summer 2001………………….45 “Lady Marmalade” by Christina Aguilera (Interscope, 2001)……………………...46 “Hanging By A Moment” by Lifehouse (DreamWorks, 2000)…………………….48 “Bootylicious” by Destiny’s Child (Columbia, 2001)……………………………...49 “Let Me Blow Your Mind” by Eve, feat. Gwen Stefani (Interscope, 2001)……….50 “Ride Wit Me” by Nelly (Universal, 2000)………………………………………...51 Interpreting the Rhetoric of Billboard’s Top 10 Songs for Fall 2002………………………52 “A Moment Like This” by Kelly Clarkson (RCA, 2002)………………………….53 “Hot in Herre” by Nelly (Universal, 2002)………………………………………...54 “Luv U Better” by LL Cool J (Def Jam, 2002)…………………………………….55 “Cleaning Out My Closet” by Eminem (Interscope, 2002)………………………..56 “Gimme the Light” by Sean Paul (VP/Atlantic Records, 2002)…………………...57 Interpreting the Rhetoric of Billboard’s Top 10 Songs for Summer 2003………………....58 “21 Questions” by 50 Cent (Shady Records, 2003)……………………………….59 “P.I.M.P.” by 50 Cent (Shady Records, 2003)………………………………….....60 “Crazy in Love” by Beyonce featuring Jay-Z (Columbia, 2003)………………….61 “Never Leave You” by Lumidee (Universal, 2003)……………………………….62 “Right Thurr” by Chingy (Capitol, 2003)………………………………………….63 “Magic Stick” by Lil’ Kim (Queen Bee/Undeas/Atlantic, 2003)………………….63 vii Interpreting the Rhetoric of Billboard’s Top 10 Songs for Spring 2004……………………65 “Let It Burn” by Usher (Arista, 2004)……………………………………………...65 “Naughty Girl” by Beyonce (Columbia, 2004)…………………………………….66 “One Call Away” by Chingy (Capitol, 2003)……………………………………...67 “Tipsy” by J-Kwon featuring R. Kelly (So So Def Records/Arista, 2004)………..68 “Dirt Off Your Shoulder” by Jay-Z (Roc-A-Fella, 2003)…………………………68 “Hotel” by Cassidy featuring R. Kelly (J Records, 2003)………………………...69 Interpreting the Rhetoric of Billboard’s Top 10 Songs for Winter 2005.............................70 Interpreting the Rhetoric of Billboard’s Top 10 Songs for Winter 2006………………….71 CHAPTER THREE: INVESTIGATING THE RAPE OF REPRESENTATION…………...72 Confessions of a Video Vixen…………………………………………………………….73 Ways That Songs on Billboard’s Charts Support Black Feminist/Critical Theories……. 78 Ways That Songs on Winters 2005-2006 Billboard Charts Reinforce Hegemony………79 CHAPTER FOUR: EXAMINING SONGS THAT RESIST HEGEMONY……………...100 Double Consciousness as a Theory of Hegemonic Resistance…………………………115 CHAPTER FIVE: CONCLUSION………………………………………………………...124 Results of Analysis……………………………………………………………………...126 Resisting the Perpetuation of Racist Ideology in the Media……………………………130 Perspectives from Scholars/Prescriptions for Change………………………………….142 Conclusion……………………………………………………………………………...153 Implications for Future Research……………………………………………………….155 References………………………………………………………………………………156 Appendix of