NOTES AND REFERENCES I CATEGORIAL DESCRIPTION 1. Aristotle, Categories 1b25: the quotation is taken from the translation, with notes, by J. L. Ackrill, Aristotle's Categories and De Interpretatione (Oxford University Press, 1963), p. 5. 2. J. L. Ackrill, op. cit., p. 78. 3. I. Kant, Critique of Pure Reason, 2nd edn (J. F. Hartknoch, Riga, 1787). These categories are listed in the first chapter of the section called 'Analytic of Concepts'. 4. Ibid. 5. R. G. Collingwood, Essay on Metaphysics (Oxford University Press, 1940). 6. I. Kant, op. cit., 'Analytic of Principles'. 7. P. F. Strawson, Individuals (Methuen, London, 1959) p. 9. 8. Ibid., pp. 9-10. 9. Ibid., p. 10. 10. I. Kant, op. cit., 'Analytic of Concepts'. II. R. Descartes, Meditations on First Philosophy (Paris, 1641). References are to the translation of the 2nd edition ( 1642) included in E. Anscom be and P. T. Geach, translators and editors, Descartes: Philosophical Writings (Nelson, London, 1964). 12. R. Descartes, ibid., p. 67. 13. B. Williams, Descartes: The Project of Pure Enquiry (Penguin, Harmondsworth, 1978) p. 112. 14. R. Descartes, op. cit., p. 61. 15. R. Descartes, op. cit., p. 114. 16. E. Anscombe and P. T. Geach, op. cit., pp. 193-4. 17. A category account of facts is presented in D. W. Hamlyn, 'The Correspondence Theory of Truth', Philosophical Quarterly, XII ( 1962), pp. 193-205. 18. G. E. Moore, Principia Ethica (Cambridge University Press, 1903). 2 SUBSTANCE I. Aristotle, Categories 2a II: J. L. Ackrill, op. cit., p. 5. 2. This interpretation is taken inj. L. Mackie, Problems from Locke (Oxford University Press, 1976), pp. 73-6. 160 Notes and References 3. J. Locke, An Essay Concerning Human Understanding, 2 vols (London, 1690). This quotation is from the 5th edition of 1706, reprinted in the Everyman's Library, edited by J. W. Yolton (Dent, London, 1961), Vol. I, p. 245. 4. J. Locke, op. cit., p. 245. 5. L. Wittgenstein, Tractatus Logico-Philosophicus, first edition in Annalen der Naturphilosophie 1921: quotations are from the D. F. Pears and B. F. McGuiness translation (Routledge & Kegan Paul, London, 1961). 6. B. Russell, The Philosophy of Logical Atomism, first published 1918: a convenient edition is D. F. Pears (ed.), Russell's Logical Atomism (Fontana, London, 1972). 7. B. Russell, Introduction to Mathematical Philosophy (Allen & Unwin, London, 1920), p. 173. 8. G. W. Leibniz, Monadology (Paris, 1714). This quotation is from G. H. R. Parkinson (ed.), Leibni::;: Philosophical Writings (Dent, London, 1973), p.l79. 9. G. W. Leibniz, Discourse on Metaphysics (1686). This quotation is from G. H. R. Parkinson (ed.), op. cit., pp. 1~19. 10. G. W. Leibniz, Discourse, (ed.) G. H. R. Parkinson, op. cit., p. 18. 11. S. A. Kripke, Naming and Necessity ( 1970). These lectures, originally delivered at Princeton University, are reprinted inS. A. Kripke, Naming and Necessity (Blackwell, Oxford, 1980) from which quotations are taken. Other major proponents of modern essentialism are Hilary Putnam, David Lewis and Alvin Plantinga: see works by them included in the Bibliography below. 12. Ibid., p. 113. 13. Such an appreciation does, of course, involve many false assumptions about the past: the point is that these false beliefs are shared and form part of the background of our use of names. 14. S. A. Kripke, op. cit., p. 15. 15. Ibid., p. 19. 16. J. S. Mill, A System ofLogic (8th edition Longman, London, 1872) p. 15. 17. P. F. Strawson, op. cit., pp. 187--8. 18. Ibid., p. 167. 3 ESSENCE AND ACCIDENT I. G. Berkeley, Treatise Concerning the Principles of Human Knowledge (1710), especially the introduction; this work is included in the Everyman's Library collection, Berkeley: A New Theory of Vision and Other Writings (Dent, London, 195 7): D. Hume, Treatise ofHuman Nature ( 1739), Book!, Part I, Section vn; an easily available edition is L. Selby-Bigge (ed.), David Hume: Treatise ofHuman Nature (Oxford University Press, 1967). 2. See e.g. Plato, Republic Book Five: translated with an introduction by Desmond Lee (Penguin, Harmondsworth, 1955). 3. See e.g. Plato, Parmenides in E. Hamilton and H. Cairns (eds), Plato: The Collected Dialogues (Pantheon Books, New York, 1961). 4. Aristotle, Metaphysics Book vn: in R. McKeon (ed.), The Basic Works of Aristotle (Random House, New York, 1941). Notes and References 161 5. B. Russell, Problems ofPhilosophy (Oxford University Press, 1959) p. 55. 6. Aristotle, Posterior Anarytics Book II, Chapter 19: in R. McKeon, op. cit. 7. G. W. Leibniz, Monadology, (ed.) G. H. R. Parkinson, op. cit., p. 185. 8. See the papers collected in S. P. Swartz (ed.), Naming, Necessiry and Natural Kinds (Cornell University Press, 1977). 9. J. L. Mackie, Problems from Locke, (Oxford University Press, 1976) p. 87. 10. J. Locke, Essay, Vol. I, pp. 131-2. 11. J. Locke, Essay, Vol. II, p. 42fT. 12. Ibid., Chapter III. 13. J. Locke, Essay, Vol. II, p. 23. 14. J. Locke, Essay, Vol. I, p. 320. 15. S. A. Kripke, op. cit., Lecture III passim. 16. J. L. Mackie, op. cit., p. 93fT. 17. S. A. Kripke, op. cit., p. 12. 18. Dan O'Connor has pointed out to me that we should, on the rigid designator approach, allow for possible worlds in which things do not even have a real essence different from their nominal essence: that is to say, the interiors of all substances are totally unstructured and consist of unanalysable mush. Such worlds would still operate as causal systems but no rationale of such would exist. In such possible worlds (of which there could be an uncountable multitude) macrostructure and behaviour would not be explicable in terms of microstructure and micromechanisms. To such worlds what relevance could our scientific vocabulary possibly have? He reminds me, too, that in our world there are many complications which our scientific classifications need to note- isomers, allotropes and isotopes included. 19. R. Harre and E. H. Madden, Causal Powers: A Theory ofNatural Necessiry (Blackwell, Oxford, 1975),passim. 4 CAUSATION 1. J. L. Ackrill, Aristotle the Philosopher (Oxford University Press, 1981), p. 36. 2. Aristotle, Physics Book n, Ch. 3: this translation is fromJ. Barnes, Aristotle (Oxford University Press, 1982), p. 52. 3. J. Locke, Essay, Book II, Ch. XXI. The next three quotations are from that chapter and the following one. 4. D. Hume, An Inquiry Concerning Human Understanding, 1748: edited with an introduction by C. W. Hendel (Bobbs-Merrill, New York, 1955), pp. 87-8. 5. Ibid., p. 75. The following quotation is from the same page. 6. D. Hume, Treatise, p. 682. 7. D. Hume, Inquiry, p. 77. The next two quotations are from p. 85 and p. 87 respectively. 8. D. Hume, Treatise, p. 170. 9. Ibid., p. 156. 10. Ibid., p. 165. 11. D. Hume, Inquiry, p. 87. 12. J. S. Mill, System of Logic, p. 214. All quotations are from that and the following three pages. 162 Notes and Riferences 13. R. G. Collingwood, 'On the So-Called Idea ofCausation', Proceedings of the Aristotelian Society, Vol. xxxvm (1938). 14. H. L. A. Hart and A. M. Honore, Causation in the Law (Oxford University Press, 1959), p. 42. 15. J. S. Mill, op. cit., p. 222. 16. J. L. Mackie, 'Causes and Conditions', American Philosophical Quarterly, Vol. 2 (1965): reprinted in E. Sosa (ed.), Causation and Conditionals (Oxford University Press, 1975). 17. J. L. Mackie, The Cement of the Universe (Oxford University Press, 1974). 18. R. Harre and E. H. Madden, Causal Powers (Blackwell, Oxford, 1975). 19. Ibid., p. 7. 20. Ibid., p. 44. 21. J. L. Mackie, The Cement of the Universe. 22. D. Lewis, Counterfactuals (Blackwell, Oxford, 1973). 23. Ibid., p. 16. 24. SeeR. C. Stalnaker, 'A Theory of Conditionals' inN. Rescher (ed.), Studies in Logical Theory (Blackwell, Oxford, 1968); reprinted in E. Sosa, op. cit. 25. Ibid., p. 57. 26. Ibid., p. 24. 27. Ibid., p. 26. 28. Ibid., p. 85. 29. Ibid., p. 87. 30. Ibid., p. 84. 5 SPACE AND TIME l. Once more I exclude from consideration those peculiar entities called numbers. 2. On the history of the philosophy ofspace and time in Greek thought, see the articles in P. Edwards (ed.), Encyclopedia of Philosophy (Collier Macmillan, London) by J. J. C. Smart, 'Space' and 'Time'; and works on Greek philosophy generally, such as J. Burnet, Early Greek Philosophy, 3rd edition (Black, London, 1920). 3. Aristotle, Physics, Book rv: this translation is by R. P. Hardie and R. C. Gaye, in The Works of Aristotle, ed. W. D. Ross (Oxford University Press, 1930). 4. Ibid. 5. 0. R. Frisch, 'Parity Not Conserved, a New Twist to Physics?', University Quarterly, Vol. 11 (1957), pp. 23~. 6. See, e.g., A. Grunbaum, 'Carnap's Views on the Foundations of Geometry' in P. A. Schilpp (ed.), The Philosophy of Rudolf Carnap (Open Court, LaSalle, 1964). 7. B. Russell, Our Knowledge and the External World (Allen & Unwin, London, 1922). The lecture on 'The Problem of Infinity Considered Historically' is reprinted in J. J. C. Smart (ed.), Problems of Space and Time (Macmillan, New York, 1964) from which the quotation is taken, p. 156. An Notes and Riferences 163 excellent and detailed account of Zeno's paradoxes is G. Vlastos, 'Zeno of Elea' in the Encyclopedia of Philosophy. 8. J. M. E. McTaggart, 'The Unreality ofTime', Mind, Vol. 17 (1908); reprinted in his Philosophical Studies (Arnold, London, 1934). The argument is repeated in his The Nature of Existence, Vol. u (Cambridge University Press, 1927), Book v, Ch. 33. 9. J. M. E. McTaggart, The Nature of Existence, Book v, Ch. 33: reprinted in R. M. Gale (ed.), The Philosophy of Time (Macmillan, London, 1968), this quotation being from that reprint, p.