Embodying nation in food consumption : changing boundaries of "Taiwanese cuisine" (1895-2008) Chen, Y.J. Citation Chen, Y. J. (2010, June 15). Embodying nation in food consumption : changing boundaries of "Taiwanese cuisine" (1895-2008). Retrieved from https://hdl.handle.net/1887/15690 Version: Not Applicable (or Unknown) Licence agreement concerning inclusion of doctoral thesis in the License: Institutional Repository of the University of Leiden Downloaded from: https://hdl.handle.net/1887/15690 Note: To cite this publication please use the final published version (if applicable). Chapter One Presentation of an Elite Culture: The Emergence of “Taiwanese Cuisine” in Japanese Colonial Era On April 24, 1923, the Crown Prince of Japan, Hirohito, had a “Taiwanese lunch banquet” during his visit to Taiwan.1 All dishes served at the banquet were prepared by the chefs from Jiangshan Lou and Donghuifang restaurants, while the dishes for the Crown Prince were specially made by Wu Jiang-shan, the proprietor of Jiangshan Lou, which was at that time the most prestigious “Taiwanese restaurant” in Taipei. The banquet menu was as follows: MENU Snow-white bird’s nest (雪白官燕) Coin-shaped turkey and pork2 (金錢火雞) Crystal pigeon eggs (水晶鴿蛋) Shark fin stewed with soy sauce (紅燒火翅) Grilled eight-treasure crab3 (八寶焗蟳) Snow-white tree-fungus (雪白木耳) Fried spring rolls (炸春餅) Braised soft-shelled turtle (紅燒水魚) Sea cucumber with fungus (海參竹茹) Steamed fish fillet with ham (如意戾魚) Soup of ham with white gourd (火腿冬瓜) Eight-treasure rice (八寶飯) Almond Tea (杏仁茶) 1 Crown Prince Hirohito (April 29, 1901 – January 7, 1989) was the future Emperor Shôwa (Shôwa tennô) reigning Japan from December 25, 1926, until his death on January 7, 1989. 2 It is a deep-fried dish made with turkey, spring onion, and pork that is cut in the shape of coin. 3 “Eight treasure” (八寶) means to cook with eight ingredients which are all carefully processed and finely cut. Some frequently used ingredients are black mushrooms, bamboo shoots, ham, pork, chestnuts, and peanuts. 23 To prepare this important imperial event, the eight chefs responsible for cooking the dishes had secluded themselves a week before the banquet, and the outcome seemed satisfactory. It was reported that the Crown Prince appreciated much the Taiwanese cuisine (Taiwan ryôri),4 and he “particularly preferred the Eight-treasure rice, devouring almost all of it.”5 The banquet brought great reputation to “Taiwanese cuisine” as well as to the restaurant Jiangshan Lou. In the following years, other members of the imperial family such as Prince Chichibu Yasuhito, Prince Asaka Yasuhiko, and Prince Kuni Asaakira, also had their “Taiwanese cuisine” banquets served by Jiangshan Lou in 1925, 1927, and 1928 respectively.6 The proprietor of Jiangshan Lou even wrote a series of articles on Taiwanese cuisine, which were published in the official newspaper Taiwan nichinichi shinpô [Taiwan Daily News] in 1927, as if Taiwanese cuisine had been an authentic and traditional cuisine with a long history. Nevertheless, the term “Taiwanese cuisine” was quite novel not only for the Japanese, but also for the Taiwanese. No related terms exclusively referring to “the cuisine of Taiwan” could be found in the literature of the Qing Dynasty and before.7 Under the Qing rule, dining out in Taiwan was limited to simple eateries offering rice, noodles, and snacks, and the food was so plain that it could not be considered a formal dish.8 As for dining in, rich households had private cooks for preparing daily family meals, and hired chefs for banquets on special occasions such as weddings and birthdays. However, cuisines served at these banquets were not specially termed “Taiwanese cuisine” (Zeng, 2006a, pp. 194-198). In other words, “Taiwanese cuisine” as a new culinary category developed during the Japanese colonial era. This chapter will trace the emergence of “Taiwanese cuisine,” examining why and how it developed into a new culinary category. The chapter also seeks to answer the following questions: How was Taiwanese cuisine shaped as a new and distinctive category, particularly different from Chinese cuisine? Who drew the boundary of Taiwanese cuisine in this process of differentiation? By investigating how Taiwanese cuisine was defined and presented in the very beginning, this chapter aims to analyze the origin of Taiwanese cuisine during the Japanese colonial era, exploring how the cuisine characterized as “Taiwanese” emerged in the dining-out market at that time. 4 Taiwan ryôri is a Japanese term referring to “Taiwanese cuisine,” its equivalent Mandarin term is Taiwan liaoli. 5 Taiwan nichinichi shinpô [Taiwan Daily News] (abbreviation TNSP), 4/27/1923(8). Taiwan nichinichi shinpô is an official newspaper published from 1898 to 1944 in Taiwan. 6 TNSP, 5/30/1925(7); TNSP, 10/23/1927(5); TNSP, 4/5/1928(5). 7 Qing Dynasty (1644-1911 A.D.) is the last dynasty of Imperial China. Taiwan was officially ruled by the Qing Dynasty from 1683 to 1895. 8 For discussion on eateries during the Qing Dynasty in Taiwan, see Zeng, 2006a, pp. 176-177. 24 1. “Taiwanese cuisine” in banquets and exhibitions 1.1 “Taiwanese cuisine” served at banquets of Japanese officials It was in January 1898 when the term Taiwan ryôri first appeared in print media, shortly after the Japanese began its colonial rule in Taiwan in 1895. In the news about an official New Year Banquet of the local administration in Tainan (Tainan Benmusho), it was reported that there were many Taiwanese officials of junior level attending this banquet; therefore, some local Taiwanese dishes were served, and these dishes earned great praise at this banquet.9 In the same year, in a festival hosted by the officials of Jiayi County, a shop offering “Taiwanese cuisine” was set up along with other eateries providing Japanese snacks and dishes.10 In addition to these feasts, private parties of Japanese colonial officials serving Taiwanese food were recorded in Taiwan kanshû kiji [Records of Taiwanese Customs] published in the early 1900s,11 revealing the interests of the Japanese officers and folk scholars in Taiwanese dishes. For example, an author of Taiwan kanshû kiji has recorded a banquet menu of Taiwanese cuisine, shown in Table 1.1, which was enclosed with an invitation letter. 9 TNSP, 1/18/1898(3). 10 TNSP, 5/6/1898(5). 11 Taiwan kanshû kiji [Records of Taiwanese Customs] was published by the Taiwan kanshû kenkûkai (Association of Taiwanese Customs Research), which was set up by Japanese officials of the Government-General and researchers on folk customs. The association was established on October 30, 1900 and headed by the Governor-General Gentaro Kodama. It published Taiwan kanshû kiji every month from January 1901 to August 1907, and its main contents were customs and rituals of the Taiwanese society at that time. 25 Table 1.1 Banquet menu of Taiwanese cuisine (Taiwan ryôri) (1906) (Half Banquet )12 1. Shark fin stewed with soy sauce (紅燒魚翅) 2. Western bean with wild chicken (洋豆山雞片) 3. Stir-fried fish fillet (生炒魚片) 4. Whole duck soup (清湯全鴨) 5. Stir-fried pigeon (炒白鴿片) 6. Shrimp rolls (生丸蝦捲) (Mid-banquet Snack) Shaomai13 (燒賣) (Complete Banquet) 1. Turtle stewed with soy sauce (紅燒鱉魚) 2. Eight-treasure crab (八寶蟳盒) 3. Stir-fried eight-treasure (炒八寶菜) 4. Whelk soup (清湯香螺) 5. Whole duck (生拉全鴨) 6. Almond tofu (杏仁豆腐) Cakes, coffee and tea Four fruits, four dried fruits, four nuts and Japanese liquor will be served. Source: Taiwan kanshû kenkûkai (Association of Taiwanese Customs Research), Taiwan kanshû kiji, 6 (5), May 1906, p. 81. Consisting of 12 dishes served in sequence, the banquet was divided into two parts with a snack served at mid meal and ended with Western confectionaries, coffee, and tea. In banquet cuisine, seafood and meat played the main roles. They included precious ingredients such as bird’s nest, shark fin, pigeon, crab, and duck, which were all traditional Chinese delicacies (Simoons, 1991, pp. 427-432). These highly priced ingredients were cooked with specific recipes such as “eight treasure” and labor-intensive procedures. Enclosing a menu in the invitation was meant to alert 12 Half banquet (banxi) and complete banquet (quanxi) were specific terms used during the Japanese colonial era and post-war period denoting the “first half” and “second half” respectively of a banquet. But a banquet does not necessarily have the second half. If a banquet only served six courses and one snack, it was called “half banquet.” “Half banquet” was common at informal occasions and private feasts, while the “complete banquet” was mostly adopted for official or formal occasions. On “complete banquet” and “half banquet,” see “Sekai ni bimi wo hokoru Taiwan no ryôri [Taiwanese cuisine, boasting its delicacy to the world],” TNSP, 11/6/1922(5); Kataoka Iwao, 1981 [1921], pp. 206-207, 212; Suzuki Seichirô, 1989 [1934], p. 213. 13 Shaomai is a kind of Chinese dumpling. 26 the guests that what was provided at the banquet was “haute cuisine” in terms of the utilization of expensive items, complicated cooking methods, and exquisite service, all denoting the high social status of the host. Furthermore, fruits, nuts, and Japanese liquor were also served, presenting a combination of Chinese, Western, and Japanese components, and offering an exotic and unusual taste. It is important to note that this haute cuisine served at banquets was not exclusively identified as Taiwanese cuisine; rather, it was also referred to as Chinese cuisine (Shina ryôri in Japanese or Zhina liaoli in Mandarin) at the same time. Although the term Taiwan ryôri had been used since the end of the 19th century, what it referred to was often overlapping with the meaning of Chinese cuisine. For example, Pingleyou was one of the earliest restaurants in Taipei in the Japanese era, but the cuisines served there were termed differently in the newspaper, including Chinese cuisine (Shina ryôri),14 Taiwanese cuisine (Taiwan ryôri),15 and native island cuisine (Hontô ryôri in Japanese or bendao liaoli in Mandarin).16 However, this overlapping did not mean that the Japanese were familiar with Chinese cuisine or had much understanding of it.