The impacts of herbivores and humans on the utilisation of woody resources in conserved versus non-conserved land in Maputaland, northern KwaZulu-Natal, South Africa by Jerome Yves Gaugris Submitted in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree Philosophiae Doctor In Wildlife Management Centre for Wildlife Management Faculty of Natural and Agricultural Sciences University of Pretoria Supervisor: Prof. Dr M.W. van Rooyen February 2008 TABLE OF CONTENTS TABLE OF CONTENTS .....................................................................................i ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS..................................................................................v DISCLAIMER................................................................................................... vii CURRICULUM VITAE .................................................................................... viii ABSTRACT ...................................................................................................... ix CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION.........................................................................1 The biodiversity and conservation debate in Maputaland....................1 The rural people of Maputaland and the biodiversity conservation question ..........................................................................3 Key questions.......................................................................................4 Note on the layout of the thesis............................................................5 References...........................................................................................6 CHAPTER 2: STUDY AREA .............................................................................9 General location and baseline information...........................................9 People of the study area ......................................................................9 Climate...............................................................................................11 Geology and soils...............................................................................12 A note on biodiversity.........................................................................14 The study sites...................................................................................14 References.........................................................................................28 CHAPTER 3: GENERAL METHODS ..............................................................31 Fieldwork details ................................................................................31 Fieldwork phase, important aspects and the lighter side ...................40 References.........................................................................................45 CHAPTER 4: THE SAND FOREST OF TEMBE ELEPHANT PARK AND ENVIRONS, MAPUTALAND, SOUTH AFRICA ....................................46 Abstract..............................................................................................46 Introduction ........................................................................................46 Study Area and general aspects of Sand Forest ...............................48 Methods .............................................................................................49 Results ...............................................................................................53 Discussion..........................................................................................57 Acknowledgments..............................................................................64 References.........................................................................................65 i CHAPTER 5: AN ANALYSIS OF THE INFLUENCE OF HERBIVORES AND MAN ON VEGETATION STRUCTURE, A CASE STUDY IN NORTHERN MAPUTALAND, SOUTH AFRICA ..........................67 Abstract..............................................................................................67 Introduction ........................................................................................67 Study area..........................................................................................70 Material and Methods.........................................................................72 Results ...............................................................................................75 Discussion..........................................................................................87 Acknowledgments..............................................................................92 References.........................................................................................93 CHAPTER 6: A SPECIES LEVEL ANALYSIS OF THE EFFECT OF HERBIVORES AND MAN ON THE SAND FOREST VEGETATION OF NORTHERN MAPUTALAND, KWAZULU-NATAL, SOUTH AFRICA .........................................................................................................102 Abstract............................................................................................102 Introduction ......................................................................................102 Study area........................................................................................105 Methods ...........................................................................................107 Results .............................................................................................110 Discussion........................................................................................136 Note on the methodology.................................................................143 Conclusion .......................................................................................143 Acknowledgments............................................................................143 References.......................................................................................144 CHAPTER 7: A SPECIES LEVEL ANALYSIS OF THE EFFECT OF HERBIVORES AND MAN ON THE STRUCTURE, AND DYNAMICS OF WOODLAND VEGETATION OF NORTHERN MAPUTALAND, KWAZULU-NATAL, SOUTH AFRICA ..........................................................150 Abstract............................................................................................150 Introduction ......................................................................................150 Study area........................................................................................153 Methods ...........................................................................................155 Results .............................................................................................157 Discussion........................................................................................182 Acknowledgments............................................................................209 ii References.......................................................................................209 CHAPTER 8: AN OVERVIEW OF WOODY VEGETATION UTILISATION IN TEMBE ELEPHANT PARK, KWAZULU-NATAL, SOUTH AFRICA ...........................................................................................216 Abstract............................................................................................216 Introduction ......................................................................................216 Study area........................................................................................217 Methods ...........................................................................................218 Results .............................................................................................223 Discussion........................................................................................254 Conclusion .......................................................................................257 Acknowledgments............................................................................258 References.......................................................................................258 CHAPTER 9: AN OVERVIEW OF WOODY VEGETATION UTILISATION IN THE MANQAKULANE RURAL COMMUNITY, KWAZULU-NATAL, SOUTH AFRICA .........................................................262 Abstract............................................................................................262 Introduction ......................................................................................262 Study area........................................................................................264 Methods ...........................................................................................265 Results .............................................................................................267 Discussion........................................................................................271 Conclusion .......................................................................................281 Acknowledgments............................................................................282 References.......................................................................................282 CHAPTER 10: THE UTILISATION OF WOODY VEGETATION BY ELEPHANTS IN TEMBE ELEPHANT PARK, MAPUTALAND, SOUTH AFRICA ...........................................................................................286 Abstract............................................................................................286 Introduction ......................................................................................286