Ceylon Journal of Science (Bio. Sci.) 44 (1): 1-11, 2015 DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.4038/cjsbs.v44i1.7336 LEAD ARTICLE Managing Elephants in Sri Lanka: Where We Are and Where We Need to Be Prithiviraj Fernando Centre for Conservation and Research, Rajagiriya, Sri Lanka. ABSTRACT Asian elephants are ‘endangered’ but come into significant conflict with humans. Sri Lanka holds an important position in relation to Asian elephants, both in terms of species conservation and human-elephant conflict mitigation. Historical aspects of the two main conservation agencies in Sri Lanka and difficulty of coordination between them has prevented a landscape level holistic approach to conservation in general and elephants in particular. The primary objective of elephant management is human-elephant conflict mitigation and secondarily elephant conservation. Many human-elephant conflict mitigation activities are ineffective and in some cases cause its escalation and wider spread. Others are extremely detrimental to elephant conservation. Effective human-elephant conflict mitigation and elephant conservation requires a paradigm change. Elephant management needs to be based on science and evidence rather than outdated beliefs and false assumptions. Unless immediate and effective remedial measures are taken, human-elephant conflict will continue to escalate and the elephant population continue to decline. Keywords: Asian elephant, human-elephant conflict, conservation INTRODUCTION While many subspecies of the Asian elephant were described in the past (Deraniyagala 1955), Asian elephants (Elephas maximus) once existed subsequently most of them including the Bornean across south and south-east Asia from Iraq in the E. m. borneansis were synonymized under E. m. west, Himalayan foothills in the north and China in indicus, while the Sri Lankan E. m. maximus and the east, together with four island populations in Sri Sumatran E. m. sumatranus were held to be valid Lanka, Java, Sumatra and Borneo (Fernando & subspecies taxa (Choudhury et al. 2008). Genetic Leimgruber 2011). They are now extinct in over analysis recognized the Bornean population as a 80% of this range and are limited to a number of separate Evolutionarily Significant Unit, fragmented and isolated populations in Sri Lanka, suggesting that it is a valid subspecies (Fernando et India, Nepal, Bhutan, Bangladesh, Myanmar, al. 2003). Therefore, currently four subspecies are Thailand, Laos, Cambodia, Vietnam, Malaysia, recognized. The Sri Lankan elephant is the forma Indonesia and China (Fernando & Pastorini 2011). typica as the original scientific description of the The global population of Asian elephants is around elephant in 1758 by Linnaeus was based on 40,000 (Fernando & Pastorini 2011) numbering material thought to originate from Sri Lanka. less than 10% of African elephants (Loxodonta Recent examination of the source material found africana and L. cyclotis) (Blanc et al. 2007). that the foetus used by Linnaeus was in fact that of Current Asian elephant populations in Bhutan, an African elephant (Cappellini et al. 2013). This Nepal, Vietnam and China all number less than 200 would indicate that the name Elephas maximus individuals (Fernando & Pastorini 2011). Given its should refer to the African and not the Asian decline in range and numbers and the on-going elephant. However among the material cited by threats to the species, Asian elephants have been Linnaeus was a description of a skeleton, which listed as ‘Endangered’ under IUCN red listing was traced to a museum in Florence and found to criteria (IUCN 2015). The population in Sumatra be of an Asian elephant (Cappellini et al. 2013). has undergone sharp decline in numbers and range Genetic analysis of the skeleton found consistency in the recent past (Azmi & Gunaryadi 2011) and are with a putative Sri Lankan origin, and it has now now categorized as ‘Critically Endangered’ been designated as a lectotype (Cappellini et al. (Gopala et al. 2011). 2013). Thus, the nomenclature of the species and the forma typica status of the Sri Lankan elephant remain unchanged. Author’s email: [email protected] 2 Fernando As one of three island populations, as a population section of vegetation of well over a hundred species at one extreme of the species’ range, as the (Vancuylenberg 1977; Sukumar 1990; Somasiri & population with the highest genetic diversity Weerakoon 2007). They tend to prefer grasses as (Fernando et al. 2000; 2013; Vidya et al. 2005a, b), they grow in abundance, hence are easy to gather and as a population consisting of a distinctive and have few secondary compounds. However in subspecies (Choudhury et al. 2008), the Sri Lankan most Asian elephant habitats, grasses are available population of Asian elephants holds a unique and only seasonally. The next choice of elephants is very important position in the conservation of the pioneer species as they too grow in abundance, can species. Additionally, although having only 1-2% be repeatedly harvested and persist through the dry of global Asian elephant range (Fernando et al. season. Elephants have overcome the thorny 2011), Sri Lanka holds 10-20% of the global Asian defences of such vegetation by developing thick elephant population, at a density of around ten and tough skin and tolerant digestive tract lining, so times that of any other range state (Fernando & can devour them in quantity. Elephants also Pastorini 2011). Of the 13 range states, Sri Lanka consume shade tolerant species, but only in small has the third highest human density and the highest amounts due to the issues caused by ingestion of level of human-elephant conflict (HEC). Given that secondary compounds. the main threat to Asian elephants across the range is HEC (Fernando & Pastorini 2011), the Habitat preferences conservation of elephants and mitigation of HEC in Asian elephants are an ‘edge species’ dependent on Sri Lanka and its successes and failures are of great forest-edges or eco-tones (Fernando 2006; relevance to the management of elephants Fernando & Leimgruber 2011). While they prefer worldwide. grasslands, such habitat is not a prominent feature of the tropical areas they occupy. Over much of Asian elephant range the climax vegetation is ECOLOGICAL ASPECTS RELEVANT tall/mature forest where most of the productivity is TO HEC AND ELEPHANT in the canopy, out of elephant reach. Saplings and MANAGEMENT other vegetation that comprise the sparse undergrowth in such forests are mostly unpalatable Morphology shade tolerant species. However, in locations where Elephants, with an adult weight of 1,000-5,000 kg light levels are high as in tree fall gaps and along are the biggest terrestrial animals. As a result, river courses, pioneer species and grasses through evolutionary time they have been immune proliferate. Elephants mainly use such restricted, to physical challenge by other species. When ephemeral and seasonal habitats corresponding to challenged, animals respond by ‘fight or flight’ ‘forest edge’ in tall/mature forests. In such forests, reaction. With repeated challenge, animals are elephants occur at low densities of about 0.2 2 more likely to respond with ‘fight’ as indicated by elephants/km (Sukumar 2003). Where forest is cut the proverb ‘even the worm will turn’. Given their and burnt, and allowed to regenerate, as in slash- evolutionary history, elephants are far more likely and-burn or shifting cultivation, the entire area to ‘turn’ and respond with aggression to challenge becomes ‘edge habitat’ (Fernando 2006; Fernando or confrontation than other species. & Leimgruber 2011; Pastorini et al. 2013). Areas under an intermediate disturbance regime support 2 Feeding behaviour elephant densities of around 3 elephants/km One of the main problems for plants is consumption (Sukumar 2003), a magnitude higher than by animals. Plants have evolved to address this tall/mature forests. issue in a number of ways. Grasses develop very rapidly and grow from the proximal end of the A larger proportion of high elephant density blade so that grazing damage is limited. Many habitats are administered under the Forest shrubs and small trees have evolved mechanical Department and come under the designation of defences such as thorns. Others invest in secondary ‘Other State Forests’. Most lands under the compounds that are poisonous. Plants that colonize Department of Wildlife Conservation are mature open spaces are called ‘pioneer species’ and tend to forests or in succession and will revert to mature adopt rapid growth and mechanical defences. forests, leading to decreasing elephant densities Plants that grow in shade cannot grow fast and tend (Fernando 2015). The only exceptions are reservoir to invest in secondary compounds. Elephants are bed grasslands such as Minneriya and Kaudulla mega-herbivores, with a daily food requirement of where the agent of disturbance is annual flooding. about 10% of their body weight (Sukumar 1989). Thus they have to find a large quantity of food, Home ranges which means they cannot be specialized feeders There is a common perception that elephants are a selecting a narrow range of plants or the choicest migratory species. Studies done in Africa have plant parts. Consequently elephants have evolved suggested that particular populations of elephants to be generalist herbivores consuming a wide cross are migratory, some are composed of both Managing Elephants in Sri Lanka 3 migratory and non-migratory herds and others non- Reproduction migratory (Thouless 1996; Grainger et al. 2005; Asian elephants have a gestation period of 22 Galanti et al. 2006). Some studies on the ranging months and suckle the young for about 2-3 years. patterns of Asian elephants have suggested that Therefore a female comes into oestrus or mating Indian elephants migrate (Sukumar 1989; Baskaran condition once every 4-5 years (Eisenberg et al. et al. 1993; Datye & Bhagwat 1995) and others that 1971; Rasmussen & Schulte 1998). As a result it is they do not (Easa 1988; Joshua & Johnsingh 1993). not advantageous for a male to develop a strong Radio tracking studies in Sri Lanka have pair bond and associate with a female throughout.