The Willow and the Palm: an exploration of the role of cricket in Fiji Thesis submitted by Narelle McGlusky BA (Hons) James Cook in October 2005 for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy in the School of Humanities James Cook University ELECTRONIC COPY I, the undersigned, the author of this work, declare that the electronic copy of this thesis provided to the James Cook University Library, is an accurate copy of the print thesis submitted, within the limits of the technology available. _______________________________ _______________ Signature Date STATEMENT OF ACCESS I, the undersigned author of this work, understand that James Cook University will make this thesis available for use within the University Library and, via the Australian Digital Theses network, for use elsewhere. I understand that, as an unpublished work, a thesis has significant protection under the Copyright Act and; I do not wish to place any further restriction on access to this work _____________________________________ ______________ Signature Date STATEMENT OF SOURCES DECLARATION I declare that this thesis is my own work and has not been submitted in any form for another degree or diploma at any university or other institution of tertiary education. Information derived from the published or unpublished work of others has been acknowledged in the text and a list of references is given. ________________________________ __________________ Signature Date Abstract The starting point for this thesis is an investigation of the political role of cricket in the development of national identity among the colonies of the British Empire. The British invested the game with moral and political values and openly employed it to impose these values on their colonial populations. As the colonies established their own national identities they accepted, adopted and adapted these values for their own purposes. The game was used as a vehicle for entry into the closed society of the elite ruling class but was also utilized, both overtly and covertly, as a tool for resistance. This thesis examines this process in the Pacific state of Fiji through a study of the interaction of its political and social history with the development of cricket between 1874 and 1971. While the role of cricket in the development of national identity in the major test playing nations has been extensively explored, very little has been done to discover whether the processes in these countries operated in those ex-colonies where the game is still played but not to test standard. There also appears to have been little consideration given to the more pragmatic question of why the game prospered in some colonies rather than others. The role of sport in the colonial experience of the people of the Pacific islands has been neglected by historians. Utilising a broadly comparative approach, the study traces the Fijian experience with colonial sport through cricket. The importance of the sources of the game in other British colonies, the administration, missionaries and the education system, are placed in the Fijian context. The demographics of cricket in Fiji are established through a study of individual players. A contextual analysis of the game itself and the physical and geographical nature of Fiji reveal practical reasons for the game’s decline after its initial enthusiastic reception. The thesis establishes that although cricket initially flourished in Fiji, the nature of the game, Fiji’s climate and geography and the competition provided by rugby union and soccer, led to its decline. The weather and terrain frustrated the most enthusiastic ii attempts to promote the game. Rugby provided Fijians with a more compatible form of entertainment and excitement, dovetailing with current images of maleness and masculinity. Soccer gave Indo-Fijians a cheap leisure activity in which all could participate. Cricket remained a chiefly game and did not become popular with the general population. Relating the role of cricket to the concept of national identity within the Fijian state posed problems. National identity is intrinsically linked to nationalism and nationalism to the nation. Fiji does not fit comfortably within accepted definitions of the nation. During the period covered by the study, indigenous Fijians acknowledged cultural differences in their own society but retained a cohesive sense of ethnic identity which consolidated their polity. Nationalism, and national identity, presupposes an ‘other.’ For Fijians the ‘other’ was the immigrant Indian community, not the British. The need to prove themselves against the coloniser, which drove other British colonies, did not motivate the Fijians. They were not establishing a ‘new’ national identity, only strengthening and re-working their existing identity to fit new circumstances. Hence their interaction with the game of cricket did not take on the political overtones experienced in other colonies. iii Acknowledgments The loneliness of the long distance scholar is legendary. However, it is tempered by the support, cooperation and comradeship of family, friends and colleagues. This thesis, like all others, would not have been completed without their help. My thanks go to James Cook University for giving me the opportunity to undertake this research by awarding me an APA Scholarship. The supportive environment created by the staff and my fellow postgraduate students in the School of Humanities within the Faculty of Arts, Education and Social Sciences on the Cairns Campus ensured that my time with them was enjoyable and rewarding. Individually, I must thank my supervisor, Dr Doug Hunt, for his academic guidance as I negotiated the difficult road through postgraduate study. His patience, encouragement and faith in my ability have kept me going when I felt unable to complete the task. Most of all, I thank him for his friendship. I would like to thank Dr Dawn May for opening up possibilities I thought had long passed me by and Dr Jan Wegner for always being there. The opportunity to work in the Research School of Pacific and Asian Studies at the Australian National University under a National Visiting Scholarship was invaluable. Like many others, I have been overwhelmed by the generosity of the staff at libraries and archives around the world. I acknowledge their help at the University of the South Pacific and the National Archives of Fiji in Suva, the School of Oriental and African Studies at the University of London, the Public Record Office, and Lord’s Cricket Ground in London, the various libraries at the Australian National University, the Noel Butlin Archives Centre and the National Library of Australia in Canberra. And, of course, the cheerful and helpful staff at James Cook University library. Lastly my husband, Adrian, for ongoing support and encouragement, for being my first reader and helping me to understand, not only the intricacies of cricket, but the bewildering differences of the various games so lightly termed ‘football’. iv Table of Contents Abstract ii Acknowledgements iv Prologue 1 Introduction 4 1 Sport, life and history: Literature Review 14 2 Once upon a game… A Brief History of Cricket in the British Empire 44 3 The willow and the palm: Fijian Political and Cricket History 86 4 In the beginning … The Pre-colonial Structure of Fijian Society 117 5 Preparing the pitch: The Wesleyan Methodist Missionary Society 136 6 At the nets: The Education System 155 7 Anyone for cricket?: The Players 175 8 A game, is a game, is a game?: The Nature of Cricket 196 Conclusion 217 Epilogue 226 Bibliography 229 v Prologue In a match today between Fiji and the West Indies touring team which was passing through Suva on the way to New Zealand in the Southern Cross, Fiji won by 28 runs. (Fiji Times and Herald, 12 January 1956) In January 1956 the West Indies test team called at Suva in Fiji on its way to play in New Zealand. The secretary of the Fiji Cricket Association, Mr H. King, arranged for an exhibition match with a local Fijian side and called on Ratu1 Kamisese Mara to put together a team. 12 January dawned hot, but fine, and Mara had managed to round up a team of local players including a couple of well known cricketers from Lau and Nadi. The Fijians entered the match with enthusiasm but little expectation of winning. The Fijians won the toss and elected to bat first. They began creditably with Harry Apted running up 33 before being caught by Clairmonte de Peiza, off Collie Smith. The other Fijian batsmen did not fair as well, except for Ilikena Bula who, in his usual excellent form, made 27 before being bowled by Denis Atkinson. Mara was out for a duck, caught by Hammond Furlonge off Smith. However, the Fijians were not unhappy with their total of 91 runs when they adjourned for lunch at the Grand Pacific Hotel. Over the generous lunch, the teams and invited guests were addressed by the secretary of the Fijian Cricket Association and by Ratu Sir Lala Sukuna. Parallels were drawn between the West Indies and Fiji and hopes expressed that Fiji would also one day reach test standard. When play resumed after lunch, Furlonge and Aliie Binns opened the batting for the West Indies. Mara commenced the bowling for the Fijians and, as expected, the visitors began to build a respectable run rate. But then ‘in a blinding flash of insight’ Mara handed the bowling over to Jack Gosling and Asaeli Driu.2 This was the turning point. The Fijians renowned fielding ability came into play and only Furlonge and Binns reached double 1 chief 2 International Cricket Council, The I.C.C. Trophy 1982, I.C.C., 1982, p. 39. 2 figures, both sixteen. Sobers was out for six, caught Swann, bowled Gosling, de Peiza four, caught Raddock, bowled Gosling and Atkinson for four, caught Apted, bowled Gosling.