The Archaeology of Mining and Quarrying in England A Research Framework Resource Assessment and Research Agenda The Archaeology of Mining and Quarrying in England A Research Framework for the Archaeology of the Extractive Industries in England Resource Assessment and Research Agenda Collated and edited by Phil Newman Contributors Peter Claughton, Mike Gill, Peter Jackson, Phil Newman, Adam Russell, Mike Shaw, Ian Thomas, Simon Timberlake, Dave Williams and Lynn Willies Geological introduction by Tim Colman and Joseph Mankelow Additional material provided by John Barnatt, Sallie Bassham, Lee Bray, Colin Bristow, David Cranstone, Adam Sharpe, Peter Topping, Geoff Warrington, Robert Waterhouse National Association of Mining History Organisations 2016 Published by The National Association of Mining History Organisations (NAMHO) c/o Peak District Mining Museum The Pavilion Matlock Bath Derbyshire DE4 3NR © National Association of Mining History Organisations, 2016 in association with Historic England The Engine House Fire Fly Avenue Swindon SN2 2EH ISBN: 978-1-871827-41-5 Front Cover: Coniston Mine, Cumbria. General view of upper workings. Peter Williams, NMR DPO 55755; © Historic England Rear Cover: Aerial view of Foggintor Quarry, Dartmoor, Devon. Damian Grady, NMR 24532/004; © Historic England Engine house at Clintsfield Colliery, Lancashire. © Ian Castledine Headstock and surviving buildings at Grove Rake Mine, Rookhope Valley, County Durham. © Peter Claughton Marrick ore hearth lead smelt mill, North Yorkshire © Ian Thomas Grooved stone mining hammer from Engine Vein, Alderley Edge, Cheshire. © Simon Timberlake Typesetting and layout by the editor CONTENTS List of illustrations .......................................... ix Roman ...............................................24 Acknowledgements ........................................... xiii 2.9.2 Oil shale ............................................25 Jon Humble: a tribute ........................................ xiv 2.9.3 Peat ....................................................25 Foreword ............................................................. xvi 2.9.4 Jet .......................................................25 Resumé ................................................................ xvii 2.9.5 Amber ...............................................26 Vorwort .............................................................. xviii 2.10 Flint ..............................................................26 2.10.1 Prehistoric .....................................26 1 Introduction 2.11 Polished stone axes ..................................28 1 Introduction ................................................. 1 2.12 Building stone (see Section 3.2.1-3) .........28 1.1 Summary description ................................. 1 2.13 Ornamental stone ....................................28 1.2 Background to the project ....................... 1 2.13.1 Southwest England .......................28 1.3 The case for this specialist research Prehistoric .......................................28 framework .................................................... 2 Roman ...............................................28 1.4 The structure of the research frame 2.14 Quernstone and worked stone .............28 work .............................................................. 3 2.14.1 Prehistoric .....................................29 1.5 Defining the extractive industries........... 4 2.14.2 Roman .............................................29 1.6 Methodology ............................................... 4 2.15 Clay ..............................................................29 1.6.1 The historic environment records 4 2.15.1 Prehistoric .....................................29 1.6.2 The assessments................................ 5 2.15.2 Roman .............................................29 1.7 Geology and structure .............................. 6 2.16 Salt ...............................................................30 2.16.1Prehistoric and Roman .................30 2 The Prehistoric and Roman Periods 3 Bulk Minerals 2.1 Non-ferrous metals ..................................11 2.1.1 Prehistory .......................................11 3.1 Introduction ...............................................33 2.2 Mineral pigments .....................................13 3.1.1 Scope .................................................33 2.2.1 Prehistoric ........................................13 3.1.2 Mixed terminologies ......................34 2.2.2 Roman ...............................................14 Slate, marble, granite ......................34 2.3 Copper ........................................................14 Aggregates .......................................34 2.3.1 Bronze Age .......................................14 Mines, quarries etc. ........................34 2.3.2 Iron Age ............................................17 Old references to working sites ....36 2.3.3 Roman ...............................................17 3.2 Consumption .............................................36 2.4 Tin ................................................................18 3.2.1 Prehistoric and Roman ..................37 2.4.1 Bronze Age .......................................18 3.2.2 Neolithic stone monuments ........37 2.4.2 Iron Age ............................................19 3.2.3 Bronze and later prehistoric ..........37 2.4.3 Roman ...............................................19 Stone buildings and structures .....37 2.5 Gold .............................................................19 Metallurgical uses ...........................37 2.5.1 Bronze Age .......................................19 Grinding with stone .......................37 2.6 Lead and silver...........................................19 Roman construction ......................38 2.6.1 Bronze Age .......................................19 3.2.4 Medieval consumption...................38 2.6.2 Iron Age ............................................20 Building, dimension and decorative 2.6.3 Roman ...............................................20 stone to 1540 ..................................38 2.7 Zinc ..............................................................22 Industrial uses to 1540 ................39 2.7.1 Roman ...............................................22 3.2.5 Post-medieval and later consumption ..39 2.8 Iron ..............................................................22 Building stone ................................39 2.8.1 Iron Age ............................................22 Industrial uses post 1750 ..............41 2.8.2 Roman ...............................................23 Chemical-based uses .....................41 2.9 Fossil mineral .............................................24 Metallurgical uses ..........................41 2.9.1 Coal ...................................................24 Other limes, cements and concrete ...41 Iron Age ............................................24 Aggregates .......................................42 iii The Archaeology of Mining and Quarrying in England Grinding with stone .......................43 3.7.9 Lime production .............................65 Military uses ..................................43 3.7.10 Cement production .....................66 3.3 Development of the industry structure ....44 3.8 Field archaeology ......................................66 3.4 Locality ........................................................45 3.8.1 Bulk minerals typology .................66 3.4.1 Overview ..........................................45 3.8.2 Extractive sites ................................67 3.4.2 Neolithic and other pre-Roman Topographic setting........................67 stone monuments ..........................46 Operational style or type .............68 3.4.3 Building stone – Roman to 20th Quarrying techniques ....................68 century ........................................................46 Waste and unsold or abandoned 3.4.4 Aggregates ........................................47 products ...........................................69 3.4.5 Lime, cement and concrete ..........48 3.8.3 Processing ........................................69 3.4.6 Chemical uses .................................49 Primary processing ........................69 3.4.7 Metallurgical uses ..........................49 Secondary processing ....................70 3.4.8 Abrasives .........................................49 3.8.4 Movement of materials .................70 3.4.9 Industrial sands ...............................49 3.8.5 Sources of power ...........................70 3.4.10 Mines and quarries .....................49 3.8.6 Infrastructure ..................................70 3.5 Geology ......................................................50 3.8.7 Chronology of stone use ..............70 3.5.1 Geological considerations ............50 Prehistoric stone structures ........71 3.5.2 Information available ......................50 Bronze and Iron Ages ....................71 Geological maps .............................50 Roman ...............................................71 Resource and related reports .....51 Medieval ..........................................71 3.5.3 Distribution of bulk mineral Post Medieval to 1750 ..................72 resources ........................................51 From 1750 .......................................72 Limestones .....................................51 3.9 Archaeological recording ........................73 Sandstones .......................................53