Discourses, Decisions, Designs: An International Comparative Analysis of “Special” Educational Policy Making in New South Wales, Scotland, Finland and Malaysia BY PEI WEN CHONG A Thesis Submitted to Macquarie University and University of Edinburgh In Fulfilment of the Requirements for the Degree of Doctor of Philosophy Macquarie University, School of Education University of Edinburgh, Moray House School of Education (16 JANUARY 2013) TABLE OF CONTENTS Heading Page TABLE OF CONTENTS i LIST OF TABLES AND FIGURES vii ABSTRACT ix THESIS STATEMENT x ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS xi Preamble: Structure of the Thesis xiii Chapter 1: Competing Goals, Competing Discourses: The Influence on Student Support Services 1.1 Introduction 1 1.2 Education Policymaking – The influence of Inclusion and Neo-liberalism 2 1.3 Using PISA for international benchmarking 10 1.4 The case for comparative case studies 13 1.5 Purpose of the study and research questions 18 1.6 Limitations and assumptions 19 1.7 Conclusion 20 Chapter 2: Literature Review 2.1 Introduction 21 2.2 Education policy-making in a globalised world 22 2.3 A journey towards inclusion 2.3.1 The advent of special education 24 2.3.2 The medical and social models 27 2.3.3 From integration to inclusion 29 2.3.4 Why inclusion… and how? 30 2.3.5 Shifting labels - true inclusion is still far away? 34 2.4 Impact of neo-liberalism in education 36 2.4.1 School choice and marketisation 37 i 2.4.2 Standards-based reform and competition 39 2.4.3 Accountability: A new modality of central control and intervention 41 2.4.4 International student assessment 45 2.5 Conclusion 46 Chapter 3: Methodology 3.1 Introduction 48 3.2 Research design 49 3.3 The selection of documents 53 3.4 Ethical approval 54 3.5 Procedures and the selection of participants 54 3.6 Interview schedule 55 3.7 Interview themes and questions 57 3.8 Data analysis 58 3.9 Setting the context: New South Wales, Scotland, Finland and Malaysia 62 3.9.1 New South Wales 62 3.9.2 Scotland 64 3.9.3 Finland 65 3.9.4 Malaysia 66 3.10 Conclusion 68 Chapter 4: New South Wales Case Study 4.1 Introduction 70 4.2 The macro level: historical background 71 4.2.1 Education governance and the schooling structure 72 4.2.2 The political context and international scene 73 4.2.3 Participation in international student assessments 75 4.2.4 Conclusion 76 4.3 The meso level – policy development 76 4.3.1 The purpose of education 77 4.3.2 Important concepts in NSW legislation 78 4.3.3 Legislation and development of student support provisions 79 4.3.4 Funding allocations and targeted areas 82 4.3.5 Enrolment trends 85 ii 4.3.6 Reflecting on policy development 87 4.3.7 Neo-liberal influence 88 a) High-stakes assessment and streaming 89 b) School-choice policies 90 4.3.8 Conclusion 92 4.4 The micro level: interview discourses 92 4.4.1 The medical dominance: disability as the main benchmark 93 for student support 4.4.2 Inclusion embedded in a continuum of support services 97 4.4.3 Neo-liberalism as an inhibitor to inclusion 101 4.5 Conclusion 105 Chapter 5: Scottish Case Study 5.1 Introduction 107 5.2 The macro level: historical background 109 5.2.1 Education governance and the schooling structure 111 5.2.2 The political context and international scene 111 5.2.3 Participation in international student assessments 112 5.2.4 Conclusion 113 5.3 The meso level – policy development 114 5.3.1 The purpose of education 114 5.3.2 Important concepts in Scottish legislation 116 5.3.3 Legislation and development of student support provisions 117 5.3.4 Additional support for learning 118 5.3.5 Funding allocations and targeted areas 120 5.3.6 Enrolment trends 123 5.3.7 Reflecting on policy development 128 5.3.8 Neo-liberal influence a) High-stakes assessment and streaming 128 b) School-choice policies 130 c) Accountability and benchmarks 132 5.3.9 Conclusion 133 iii 5.4 The micro level: interview discourses 134 5.4.1 The implementation gap: inclusive policies, mixed provision 135 and school realities 5.4.2 Neo-liberal influence on the rise 138 5.5 Conclusion 141 Chapter 6: Finnish Case Study 6.1 Introduction 143 6.2 The macro level: historical background 144 6.2.1 Education governance and the schooling structure 146 6.2.2 The political context and international scene 147 6.2.3 Participation in international student assessments 149 6.2.4 Conclusion 151 6.3 The meso level – policy development 151 6.3.1 The purpose of education 151 6.3.2 Important concepts in Finnish legislation 153 6.3.3 Legislation and development of student support provisions 154 6.3.4 Funding allocations and targeted areas 156 6.3.5 Enrolment trends 158 6.3.6 Reflecting on policy development 162 6.3.7 Neo-liberal influence 162 a) High-stakes assessment and streaming 163 b) School-choice policies 163 c) Accountability and benchmarks 164 6.3.8 Conclusion 165 6.4 The micro level: interview discourses 165 6.4.1 The dissolution of the institution-based medical model 166 6.4.2 Inclusion as the ingrained mindset in society and 167 political practice 6.4.3 Towards inclusive education in Finland 168 6.4.4 The resistance of market-led strategies 171 6.5 Conclusion 174 iv Chapter 7: Malaysian Case Study 7.1 Introduction 175 7.2 The macro level: historical background 176 7.2.1 Education governance and the schooling structure 177 7.2.2 The political context and international scene 178 7.2.2 Participation in international student assessments 179 7.2.3 Conclusion 181 7.3 The meso level – policy development 7.3.1 The purpose of education 181 7.3.2 Important concepts in Malaysian legislation 182 7.3.3 Legislation and development of student support provisions 184 7.3.4 Funding allocations and targeted areas 186 7.3.5 Enrolment trends - the integration movement 187 7.3.6 Reflecting on policy development 191 7.3.7 Neo-liberal influence 192 a) High-stakes assessment and streaming 193 b) School-choice policies 194 c) Accountability and benchmarks 195 7.3.8 Conclusion 197 7.4 The micro level: interview discourses 197 7.4.1 The rise of integration under a persisting medical model 198 7.4.2 Neo-liberal discourses on the increase 202 7.5 Conclusion 205 Chapter 8: Comparative Analysis and Discussion 8.1 Introduction 208 8.2 Discourses: Neo-liberalism and inclusion as travelling policies in the four contexts a) New South Wales 210 b) Scotland 211 c) Finland 213 d) Malaysia 215 8.3 Decisions: Relative priorities in policy development a) Education Governance and Academic Standards 217 v b) Educational marketisation 222 8.4 Designs: “Special” Education Support Systems 224 8.5 Tensions between equity and efficiency 228 8.6 Conclusion 229 References 234 APPENDIX Appendix A: Journal article - Chong, P.W. & Graham, L.J. (2012). The 294 ‘Russian doll’ approach: developing nested case-studies to support international comparative research in education. International Journal of Research & Method in Education. Appendix B: Macquarie University ethics approval letter 309 Appendix C: University of Edinburgh ethics approval letter 311 Appendix D: Malaysia research approval letter 312 Appendix E: Information statement and consent forms for 314 interview participants vi LIST OF TABLES AND FIGURES Heading (based on chapter numerals) Page Table 3.1: A conceptual framework to build “nested” case studies for vertical 49 and horizontal comparison across and between international contexts Table 3.2: New South Wales interview participants 56 Table 3.3: Malaysian interview participants 56 Table 3.4: Finnish interview participants 56 Table 3.5: Scottish interview participants 57 Table 4.1: Percentage of student enrolment in NSW public support services 86 Table 4.2: NSW interview participants profile 93 Table 5.1: Central and local government expenditure on school education 121 2002-03 to 2007-08 Table 5.2: Enrolment of pupils with a co-ordinated support plan and/or 123 individualised education plan (additional support needs) Table 5.3: Enrolment in independent schools 132 Table 5.4: Scottish interview participants profile 134 Table 6.1: Finland’s results in PISA 150 Table 6.2: Educational budget by type of expenditure 2008 157 Table 6.3: Finnish education policies 154 Table 6.4: Pupils transferred to special education in Finland according to 159 educational settings Table 6.5: Finnish interview participants profile 166 Table 7.1: Student placements in special schools and integrated programs 188 2004 – 2010 vii Table 7.2: The privileges and rewards obtained by high performing schools 196 Table 7.3: Malaysian interview participants profile 198 Figure 2.1: School-community inclusive education model 33 Figure 4.1: Historical trend in annual enrolment of students with a confirmed 82 disability Figure 4.2: Enrolment percentage of students with a confirmed disability in 86 different educational settings within NSW government schools, 2005 – 2011 Figure 5.1: Number of state special schools 124 Figure 5.2: Enrolment trends based on percentage of total student population 125 with four support arrangements Figure 5.3: Percentage of Scottish school population within each Scottish index 127 of multiple deprivation (SIMD) decile by type of difficulty Figure 6.1: The Finnish school system 146 Figure 6.2: Full-time special education enrolment trend 1998 – 2010 160 Figure 7.1: The education and assessment structure 178 Figure 7.2: Students with special needs in special schools (SS) and integrated 188 program (IP) 2004 - 2008 viii ABSTRACT This research draws on a nested case-study approach to investigate the influence of neo-liberal and inclusive discourses in education policy decision-making and the design of student support structures in New South Wales (Australia), Scotland, Finland and Malaysia.