Notes Introduction 1. Kamei Katsuichiro, "Giji shtikyo kokka." 2. Chamberlain, Invention of a New Religion, 6. 3. Quoted in Doak, "A Religious Perspective on the Yasukuni Controversy," 49, so. Doak has argued more recently that the Meiji constitution and its conditional guarantee of religious freedom produced "not a unique Shinto theocracy, but a kind of modern secular state that put a primacy on political controls over religion"; see Doak, "A Naked Public Square?" 189. 4. Hardacre, Shinto and the State, 18. s. See, for example, Bernstein, Modern Passings; Breen and Teeuwen, Shinto in History; Hardacre, Religion and Society in Nineteenth-Century Japan; Ketelaar, Of Heretics and M artyrs in Meiji Japan; Sawada, Practical Pursuits; Thai, Rearranging the Landscape of the Gods. 6. Inoue Kowashi, "Kyodoshoku haishi ikenan," in Inoue Kowashi den: Shiryo­ hen, 1: 389. 7· "Kyodoshoku haishi narabini shinbutsu kakushtiha mibun toriatsukai no ken," in Kobunroku 2A-ow-oo • i:-o36781oo. 8. The secular can stand prior to or in distinction from secularism as an ideo­ logical project; see Asad, Formations of the Secular, 16. 9· I use the term Shinto here heuristically, well aware of its anachronism. Be­ cause no clear sectarian framework preceded the disassociation, it is more accurate to describe the separation of Buddhas and kami. The slow and contested definition of Shinto as a composite of shrines and ritualists forms an important component of the history of religion in modern Japan. 10. Veer, Conversion to M odernities, 7· n. I have in mind particularly Sakamoto Koremaru's body of work, which is cited extensively throughout this book. 12. Holtom, Modern Japan and Shinto Nationalism. 13. Murakami, Kokka shinto, 225. 14. For representative expressions of this view, see Fujitani Toshio, "Kokka shinto no seiritsu," 289; Murakami Shigeyoshi, Kokka shinto, 225. For later formulations of Notes to Pages 6-20 their views on State Shinto, see Fujitani Toshio, Shinto shinko to minshu, tennosei, 175-237; and Murakami Shigeyoshi, Tennosei kokka to shukyo, 71-162. Nitta Hitoshi notes that most scholars do not fundamentally depart from Murakami's basic schema; Nitta, '"Kokka shinto'-ron no keifu," Kogakkan ronso 32, nos. 1 and 2 (Feb­ ruary and April1999). 15. Sheldon Garon, for example, warns against "invoking the emperor system as an all-encompassing explanation of modern Japanese history before 1945,'' because it implies too much stability and consistency in state policies and authority; Garon, Molding Japanese Minds, 62. 16. Sakamoto Koremaru, Kokka shinto keisei katei no kenkyu, 9-11, 305-10. 17. Fridell, "The Establishment of Shrine Shinto in Meiji Japan," 145,146, 161. 18. See, for example, Haga, Meiji ish in to shukyo, 5- 6; Yamaguchi, M eiji kokka to shukyo, 12-19; Isomae, Kindai nihon no shukyo gensetsu to sono keifu, 97-107. 19. See, for example, Veer and Lehmann, Nation and Religion; Yasumaru Yoshio, "Minshii shiikyo to 'kindai' to iu keiken." 20. Carl Becker provides an elegant and early articulation of this process in Heav­ enly City ofthe Eighteenth-Century Philosophers, 128-30. 21. Fitzgerald, Ideology of Religious Studies, 8. See also Asad, Formations of the Secular, 27- 28. 22. Viswanathan, Outside the Fold, 12. 23. Ibid., 16. 24. Foucault, "Technologies of the Self," 18. See also Foucault, "Governmentality." 25. Ito Yahiko, Meijin ish in to jinshin. See also Katsurajima Nobuhiro's discussion of the discourse of "capturing the hearts of the people" (jinshin shruran): Katsura­ jima, "Kindai tennosei ideologii no shiso katei," 217-46. 26. Antoni, "Introduction," 8. 27. Quoted in Yamaguchi, Meiji kokka to shukyo, 98. 28. See, for example, Aihara, "Yakugo 'shiikyo' no seiritsu"; Isomae, "Kindai ni okeru 'shiikyo' gainen no keisei katei," 161-96; Shimazono, '"Shukyo' to 'Religion"'; Suzuki, Meiji shukyo shicho no kenkyu, 13-17. 29. Hayashi, "Shiimon kara shiikyo he," 169-89. 30. As will be seen in subsequent chapters, the term shintO could be used in purely generic terms in early-Meiji Japan. Isomae, Kindai nihon no shukyo gensetsu to sono keifu, 33- 36. 31. See Sawada, Practical Pursuits. 32. Tanigawa, Meiji zenki no kyoiku, kyoka, bukkyo, 6- 9. 33. Howland, Translating the West, 6. 1. The Crisis of Conversion in Restoration Japan 1. See, for example, Haga, "Shinto kokkyosei no keisei''; Sakamoto Koremaru, "Kyobusho setchi ni kansuru ichi kosatsu"; Takagi Hiroshi, "Shinto kokkyoka sei­ saku hokaikatei." 2. Bob Wakabayashi observes that Shinron had "a political and social impact probably unmatched by any other single work during the final decades of bakufu rule"; Wakabayashi, Anti-Foreignism and Western Learning, ix. .